[
  {
    "id": 1,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      29,
      7
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988 \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who  \nThe little penguin counted 7 \u2605\n\"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 2,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      71,
      63
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written \nThe little penguin counted 71 \u2605\n, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who  \nThe little penguin counted 63 \u2605\n\"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 3,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      58,
      36
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    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out \nThe little penguin counted 58 \u2605\n? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 4,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      27,
      23
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall \nThe little penguin counted 27 \u2605\n. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      "  \nThe little penguin counted 23 \u2605\n[6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7271,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 5,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      109,
      9
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988 \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6 \nThe little penguin counted 9 \u2605\n]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 6,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      8,
      24
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 8 \u2605\n I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7271,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 7,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      56,
      60
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June \nThe little penguin counted 56 \u2605\n. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD \nThe little penguin counted 60 \u2605\n, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 8,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      7,
      51
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline \nThe little penguin counted 7 \u2605\n,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6 \nThe little penguin counted 51 \u2605\n]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 9,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      108,
      57
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school \nThe little penguin counted 108 \u2605\n.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 10,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      115,
      72
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school \nThe little penguin counted 115 \u2605\n.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7272,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 11,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      2,
      41,
      109,
      88
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair \nThe little penguin counted 2 \u2605\n\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build \nThe little penguin counted 88 \u2605\n.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7292,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 12,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      72,
      40,
      56,
      87
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option \nThe little penguin counted 56 \u2605\n, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect \nThe little penguin counted 87 \u2605\n, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7292,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 13,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      27,
      24,
      98,
      25
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told  \nThe little penguin counted 27 \u2605\n\"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course \nThe little penguin counted 25 \u2605\n.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7291,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 14,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      92,
      89,
      68,
      12
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 92 \u2605\n but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.   \nThe little penguin counted 89 \u2605\n[2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge \nThe little penguin counted 12 \u2605\n.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7290,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 15,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      118,
      32,
      97,
      21
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI \nThe little penguin counted 118 \u2605\n, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne \nThe little penguin counted 32 \u2605\n, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be \nThe little penguin counted 97 \u2605\n, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7292,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 16,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      76,
      93,
      50,
      18
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that \nThe little penguin counted 76 \u2605\n's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it \nThe little penguin counted 50 \u2605\n's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we \nThe little penguin counted 18 \u2605\n'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7291,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 17,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      12,
      59,
      75,
      21
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 12 \u2605\n but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer \nThe little penguin counted 59 \u2605\n, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money \nThe little penguin counted 75 \u2605\n, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7291,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 18,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      60,
      26,
      98,
      72
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that \nThe little penguin counted 60 \u2605\n's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer \nThe little penguin counted 26 \u2605\n, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the  \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n\"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7292,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 19,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      117,
      94,
      42,
      95
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair \nThe little penguin counted 117 \u2605\n\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I \nThe little penguin counted 94 \u2605\n'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn \nThe little penguin counted 95 \u2605\n. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7292,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 20,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      91,
      54,
      69,
      19
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset \nThe little penguin counted 91 \u2605\n. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered \nThe little penguin counted 54 \u2605\n. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the  \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n\"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert \nThe little penguin counted 19 \u2605\n's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7292,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 21,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      44,
      63,
      42,
      119,
      98,
      70,
      57,
      84
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18 \nThe little penguin counted 44 \u2605\n. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band \nThe little penguin counted 63 \u2605\n-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old \nThe little penguin counted 119 \u2605\n.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going \nThe little penguin counted 70 \u2605\n, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect \nThe little penguin counted 84 \u2605\n,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 22,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      15,
      59,
      9,
      81,
      103,
      69,
      17,
      55
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring \nThe little penguin counted 15 \u2605\n. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did \nThe little penguin counted 59 \u2605\n, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 9 \u2605\n I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book \nThe little penguin counted 81 \u2605\n, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours \nThe little penguin counted 103 \u2605\n. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don \nThe little penguin counted 17 \u2605\n't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 23,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      81,
      55,
      128,
      102,
      118,
      37,
      68,
      36
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful \nThe little penguin counted 81 \u2605\n. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out \nThe little penguin counted 128 \u2605\n? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.   \nThe little penguin counted 102 \u2605\n[3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software \nThe little penguin counted 118 \u2605\n. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers \nThe little penguin counted 37 \u2605\n.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 24,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      64,
      68,
      110,
      103,
      93,
      57,
      36,
      127
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 64 \u2605\n which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out \nThe little penguin counted 110 \u2605\n? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book \nThe little penguin counted 103 \u2605\n, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September \nThe little penguin counted 127 \u2605\n, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 25,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      24,
      13,
      29,
      40,
      41,
      109,
      17,
      99
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18 \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band \nThe little penguin counted 13 \u2605\n-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries \nThe little penguin counted 17 \u2605\n. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick \nThe little penguin counted 99 \u2605\n.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7332,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 26,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      98,
      120,
      65,
      3,
      30,
      69,
      88,
      29
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking \nThe little penguin counted 120 \u2605\n.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 65 \u2605\n I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny \nThe little penguin counted 3 \u2605\n, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp \nThe little penguin counted 30 \u2605\n, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6 \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don \nThe little penguin counted 88 \u2605\n't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 27,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      76,
      112,
      41,
      117,
      1,
      68,
      46,
      28
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn \nThe little penguin counted 76 \u2605\n't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking \nThe little penguin counted 112 \u2605\n.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3 \nThe little penguin counted 117 \u2605\n]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software \nThe little penguin counted 1 \u2605\n. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don \nThe little penguin counted 46 \u2605\n't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today \nThe little penguin counted 28 \u2605\n, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7332,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 28,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      77,
      51,
      40,
      96,
      42,
      1,
      83,
      126
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self \nThe little penguin counted 77 \u2605\n, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp \nThe little penguin counted 51 \u2605\n. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny \nThe little penguin counted 96 \u2605\n, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint \nThe little penguin counted 1 \u2605\n,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront \nThe little penguin counted 83 \u2605\n\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We \nThe little penguin counted 126 \u2605\n've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7332,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 29,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      5,
      29,
      93,
      79,
      62,
      15,
      21,
      22
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths \nThe little penguin counted 5 \u2605\n. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me \nThe little penguin counted 79 \u2605\n. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software \nThe little penguin counted 62 \u2605\n. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6 \nThe little penguin counted 15 \u2605\n]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said,  \nThe little penguin counted 22 \u2605\n\"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 30,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      125,
      18,
      33,
      122,
      43,
      68,
      109,
      55
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful \nThe little penguin counted 125 \u2605\n. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans \nThe little penguin counted 18 \u2605\n, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June \nThe little penguin counted 33 \u2605\n. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3 \nThe little penguin counted 122 \u2605\n]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money \nThe little penguin counted 43 \u2605\n, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company. \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get"
    ],
    "length": 7333,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 31,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      29,
      7
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book \nThe little penguin counted 7 \u2605\n, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 32,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      71,
      63
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity \nThe little penguin counted 71 \u2605\n,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers  \nThe little penguin counted 63 \u2605\n& Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 33,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      58,
      36
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C+ \nThe little penguin counted 58 \u2605\n+ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15332,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 34,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      27,
      23
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity \nThe little penguin counted 27 \u2605\n,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it \nThe little penguin counted 23 \u2605\n's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 35,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      109,
      9
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it \nThe little penguin counted 9 \u2605\n.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 36,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      8,
      24
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity \nThe little penguin counted 8 \u2605\n,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 37,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      56,
      60
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 56 \u2605\n if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there \nThe little penguin counted 60 \u2605\n, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15330,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 38,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      7,
      51
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn \nThe little penguin counted 7 \u2605\n't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers  \nThe little penguin counted 51 \u2605\n& Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 39,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      108,
      57
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home \nThe little penguin counted 108 \u2605\n. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 40,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      115,
      72
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993 \nThe little penguin counted 115 \u2605\n. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15331,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 41,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      2,
      41,
      109,
      88
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine \nThe little penguin counted 2 \u2605\n, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc \nThe little penguin counted 88 \u2605\n. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15350,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 42,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      72,
      40,
      56,
      87
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I \nThe little penguin counted 56 \u2605\n'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast \nThe little penguin counted 87 \u2605\n, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 43,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      27,
      24,
      98,
      25
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything \nThe little penguin counted 27 \u2605\n, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups \nThe little penguin counted 25 \u2605\n.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 44,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      92,
      89,
      68,
      12
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings \nThe little penguin counted 92 \u2605\n, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server \nThe little penguin counted 89 \u2605\n.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention \nThe little penguin counted 12 \u2605\n. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 45,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      118,
      32,
      97,
      21
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything \nThe little penguin counted 118 \u2605\n, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible \nThe little penguin counted 32 \u2605\n, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls \nThe little penguin counted 97 \u2605\n). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 46,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      76,
      93,
      50,
      18
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned \nThe little penguin counted 76 \u2605\n.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money \nThe little penguin counted 50 \u2605\n. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays \nThe little penguin counted 18 \u2605\n, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 47,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      12,
      59,
      75,
      21
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier \nThe little penguin counted 12 \u2605\n. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software \nThe little penguin counted 59 \u2605\n.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder \nThe little penguin counted 75 \u2605\n, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 48,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      60,
      26,
      98,
      72
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed \nThe little penguin counted 60 \u2605\n. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn \nThe little penguin counted 26 \u2605\n't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 49,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      117,
      94,
      42,
      95
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 117 \u2605\n and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn \nThe little penguin counted 94 \u2605\n't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it \nThe little penguin counted 95 \u2605\n. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15350,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 50,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      91,
      54,
      69,
      19
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier \nThe little penguin counted 91 \u2605\n. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions \nThe little penguin counted 54 \u2605\n, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack \nThe little penguin counted 19 \u2605\n, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15351,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 51,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      44,
      63,
      42,
      119,
      98,
      70,
      57,
      84
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it \nThe little penguin counted 44 \u2605\n. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can \nThe little penguin counted 63 \u2605\n, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early \nThe little penguin counted 119 \u2605\n. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book \nThe little penguin counted 70 \u2605\n, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I \nThe little penguin counted 84 \u2605\n'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15391,
    "hardness": null
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  {
    "id": 52,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      15,
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    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems \nThe little penguin counted 15 \u2605\n. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move \nThe little penguin counted 59 \u2605\n. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side \nThe little penguin counted 9 \u2605\n, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 81 \u2605\n If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life \nThe little penguin counted 103 \u2605\n, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders \nThe little penguin counted 17 \u2605\n: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15390,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 53,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      81,
      55,
      128,
      102,
      118,
      37,
      68,
      36
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things \nThe little penguin counted 81 \u2605\n. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity \nThe little penguin counted 128 \u2605\n,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores \nThe little penguin counted 102 \u2605\n. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them \nThe little penguin counted 118 \u2605\n.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track \nThe little penguin counted 37 \u2605\n, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15391,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 54,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      64,
      68,
      110,
      103,
      93,
      57,
      36,
      127
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 64 \u2605\n It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity \nThe little penguin counted 110 \u2605\n,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce \nThe little penguin counted 103 \u2605\n, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and  \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n(unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers  \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n& Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before \nThe little penguin counted 127 \u2605\n, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15390,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 55,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      24,
      13,
      29,
      40,
      41,
      109,
      17,
      99
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time \nThe little penguin counted 13 \u2605\n. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8 \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once \nThe little penguin counted 17 \u2605\n, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November \nThe little penguin counted 99 \u2605\n, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15391,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 56,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      98,
      120,
      65,
      3,
      30,
      69,
      88,
      29
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting \nThe little penguin counted 120 \u2605\n. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville \nThe little penguin counted 65 \u2605\n, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8 \nThe little penguin counted 3 \u2605\n]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 30 \u2605\n Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners \nThe little penguin counted 88 \u2605\n. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging.  \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n[18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15390,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 57,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      76,
      112,
      41,
      117,
      1,
      68,
      46,
      28
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993 \nThe little penguin counted 76 \u2605\n, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy \nThe little penguin counted 112 \u2605\n,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church \nThe little penguin counted 117 \u2605\n, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich \nThe little penguin counted 1 \u2605\n. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6% \nThe little penguin counted 46 \u2605\n. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting \nThe little penguin counted 28 \u2605\n. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15392,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 58,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      77,
      51,
      40,
      96,
      42,
      1,
      83,
      126
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems \nThe little penguin counted 77 \u2605\n. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject \nThe little penguin counted 51 \u2605\n, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church \nThe little penguin counted 96 \u2605\n, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you \nThe little penguin counted 1 \u2605\n're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners \nThe little penguin counted 83 \u2605\n. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam \nThe little penguin counted 126 \u2605\n.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15391,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 59,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      5,
      29,
      93,
      79,
      62,
      15,
      21,
      22
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves \nThe little penguin counted 5 \u2605\n, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce \nThe little penguin counted 79 \u2605\n, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and  \nThe little penguin counted 62 \u2605\n(unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you \nThe little penguin counted 15 \u2605\n're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I \nThe little penguin counted 22 \u2605\n'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15391,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 60,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      125,
      18,
      33,
      122,
      43,
      68,
      109,
      55
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 125 \u2605\n It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course \nThe little penguin counted 18 \u2605\n, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there \nThe little penguin counted 33 \u2605\n's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo \nThe little penguin counted 122 \u2605\n.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds \nThe little penguin counted 43 \u2605\n. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16 \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as"
    ],
    "length": 15390,
    "hardness": null
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  {
    "id": 61,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
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    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs \nThe little penguin counted 7 \u2605\n,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31397,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 62,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      71,
      63
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were \nThe little penguin counted 71 \u2605\n. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs \nThe little penguin counted 63 \u2605\n,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31397,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 63,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      58,
      36
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job \nThe little penguin counted 58 \u2605\n. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31397,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 64,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      27,
      23
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot \nThe little penguin counted 27 \u2605\n: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do \nThe little penguin counted 23 \u2605\n.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31397,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 65,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      109,
      9
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    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies \nThe little penguin counted 9 \u2605\n.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 66,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      8,
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      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn \nThe little penguin counted 8 \u2605\n't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31397,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 67,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      56,
      60
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out \nThe little penguin counted 56 \u2605\n.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years \nThe little penguin counted 60 \u2605\n. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31397,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 68,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      7,
      51
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job \nThe little penguin counted 7 \u2605\n. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that \nThe little penguin counted 51 \u2605\n's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31397,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 69,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      108,
      57
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 108 \u2605\n One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31396,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 70,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      115,
      72
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston \nThe little penguin counted 115 \u2605\n. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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  {
    "id": 71,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
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      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth \nThe little penguin counted 2 \u2605\n, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed \nThe little penguin counted 88 \u2605\n: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31417,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 72,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      72,
      40,
      56,
      87
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype \nThe little penguin counted 56 \u2605\n. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.   \nThe little penguin counted 87 \u2605\n[4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31416,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 73,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      27,
      24,
      98,
      25
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's \nThe little penguin counted 27 \u2605\n. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time \nThe little penguin counted 25 \u2605\n.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31416,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 74,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      92,
      89,
      68,
      12
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10 \nThe little penguin counted 92 \u2605\n,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN \nThe little penguin counted 89 \u2605\n, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they \nThe little penguin counted 12 \u2605\n're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31417,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 75,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      118,
      32,
      97,
      21
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes \nThe little penguin counted 118 \u2605\n.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it \nThe little penguin counted 32 \u2605\n.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can \nThe little penguin counted 97 \u2605\n.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31417,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 76,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      76,
      93,
      50,
      18
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company \nThe little penguin counted 76 \u2605\n. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don \nThe little penguin counted 50 \u2605\n't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild \nThe little penguin counted 18 \u2605\n.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 77,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      12,
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    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb \nThe little penguin counted 12 \u2605\n, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc \nThe little penguin counted 59 \u2605\n, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don \nThe little penguin counted 75 \u2605\n't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31417,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 78,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      60,
      26,
      98,
      72
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle \nThe little penguin counted 60 \u2605\n's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it \nThe little penguin counted 26 \u2605\n.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life \nThe little penguin counted 72 \u2605\n, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31417,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 79,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      117,
      94,
      42,
      95
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian \nThe little penguin counted 117 \u2605\n. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC \nThe little penguin counted 94 \u2605\n, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.   \nThe little penguin counted 95 \u2605\n[4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31416,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 80,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      91,
      54,
      69,
      19
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice \nThe little penguin counted 91 \u2605\n, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc \nThe little penguin counted 54 \u2605\n, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.   \nThe little penguin counted 19 \u2605\n[4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31416,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 81,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      44,
      63,
      42,
      119,
      98,
      70,
      57,
      84
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet \nThe little penguin counted 44 \u2605\n\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on \nThe little penguin counted 63 \u2605\n. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine \nThe little penguin counted 119 \u2605\n. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital \nThe little penguin counted 70 \u2605\n, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web \nThe little penguin counted 84 \u2605\n-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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    "id": 82,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
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      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object \nThe little penguin counted 15 \u2605\n. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming \nThe little penguin counted 59 \u2605\n, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff \nThe little penguin counted 9 \u2605\n, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense \nThe little penguin counted 81 \u2605\n. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated \nThe little penguin counted 103 \u2605\n.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent \nThe little penguin counted 17 \u2605\n,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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  {
    "id": 83,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      81,
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      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that \nThe little penguin counted 81 \u2605\n's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm \nThe little penguin counted 128 \u2605\n.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months \nThe little penguin counted 102 \u2605\n. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem \nThe little penguin counted 118 \u2605\n, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs \nThe little penguin counted 37 \u2605\n,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31457,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 84,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      64,
      68,
      110,
      103,
      93,
      57,
      36,
      127
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that \nThe little penguin counted 64 \u2605\n's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was \nThe little penguin counted 110 \u2605\n. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 103 \u2605\n and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives \nThe little penguin counted 57 \u2605\n, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one \nThe little penguin counted 36 \u2605\n. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 127 \u2605\n  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31456,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 85,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      24,
      13,
      29,
      40,
      41,
      109,
      17,
      99
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we \nThe little penguin counted 24 \u2605\n're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general \nThe little penguin counted 13 \u2605\n-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one \nThe little penguin counted 17 \u2605\n. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works. \nThe little penguin counted 99 \u2605\n\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31458,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 86,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      98,
      120,
      65,
      3,
      30,
      69,
      88,
      29
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet \nThe little penguin counted 98 \u2605\n\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders \nThe little penguin counted 120 \u2605\n. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm \nThe little penguin counted 65 \u2605\n.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 3 \u2605\n and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C \nThe little penguin counted 30 \u2605\n, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies \nThe little penguin counted 69 \u2605\n.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo \nThe little penguin counted 88 \u2605\n.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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    "id": 87,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
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      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information \nThe little penguin counted 76 \u2605\n-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on \nThe little penguin counted 112 \u2605\n. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff \nThe little penguin counted 41 \u2605\n, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 117 \u2605\n and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C \nThe little penguin counted 1 \u2605\n, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It \nThe little penguin counted 46 \u2605\n's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax \nThe little penguin counted 28 \u2605\n\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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    "id": 88,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
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      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing \nThe little penguin counted 77 \u2605\n. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s \nThe little penguin counted 51 \u2605\n.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were \nThe little penguin counted 40 \u2605\n. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation \nThe little penguin counted 96 \u2605\n, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them \nThe little penguin counted 42 \u2605\n.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital \nThe little penguin counted 1 \u2605\n, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent \nThe little penguin counted 83 \u2605\n,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web \nThe little penguin counted 126 \u2605\n-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31457,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 89,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      5,
      29,
      93,
      79,
      62,
      15,
      21,
      22
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that \nThe little penguin counted 5 \u2605\n's a water droplet\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on \nThe little penguin counted 29 \u2605\n. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year \nThe little penguin counted 93 \u2605\n, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question \nThe little penguin counted 79 \u2605\n.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C \nThe little penguin counted 62 \u2605\n, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital \nThe little penguin counted 15 \u2605\n, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals \nThe little penguin counted 21 \u2605\n. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes \nThe little penguin counted 22 \u2605\n.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works.\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
    "length": 31457,
    "hardness": null
  },
  {
    "id": 90,
    "question": "Please help the little penguin collect the number of \u2605.",
    "answer": [
      125,
      18,
      33,
      122,
      43,
      68,
      109,
      55
    ],
    "docs": [
      "February 2021Before college the two main things I worked on, outside of school, were writing and programming. I didn't write essays. I wrote what beginning writers were supposed to write then, and probably still are: short stories. My stories were awful. They had hardly any plot, just characters with strong feelings, which I imagined made them deep.The first programs I tried writing were on the IBM 1401 that our school district used for what was then called \"data processing.\" This was in 9th grade, so I was 13 or 14. The school district's 1401 happened to be in the basement of our junior high school,",
      " and my friend Rich Draves and I got permission to use it. It was like a mini Bond villain's lair down there, with all these alien-looking machines \u0097 CPU, disk drives, printer, card reader \u0097 sitting up on a raised floor under bright fluorescent lights.The language we used was an early version of Fortran. You had to type programs on punch cards, then stack them in the card reader and press a button to load the program into memory and run it. The result would ordinarily be to print something on the spectacularly loud printer.I was puzzled by the 1401. I couldn't figure out what to do with it.",
      " And in retrospect there's not much I could have done with it. The only form of input to programs was data stored on punched cards, and I didn't have any data stored on punched cards. The only other option was to do things that didn't rely on any input, like calculate approximations of pi, but I didn't know enough math to do anything interesting of that type. So I'm not surprised I can't remember any programs I wrote, because they can't have done much. My clearest memory is of the moment I learned it was possible for programs not to terminate, when one of mine didn't. On a machine without time-sharing,",
      " this was a social as well as a technical error, as the data center manager's expression made clear.With microcomputers, everything changed. Now you could have a computer sitting right in front of you, on a desk, that could respond to your keystrokes as it was running instead of just churning through a stack of punch cards and then stopping.  [1]The first of my friends to get a microcomputer built it himself. It was sold as a kit by Heathkit. I remember vividly how impressed and envious I felt watching him sitting in front of it, typing programs right into the computer.Computers were expensive in those days and it took me years of nagging before I convinced my father to buy one,",
      " a TRS-80, in about 1980. The gold standard then was the Apple II, but a TRS-80 was good enough. This was when I really started programming. I wrote simple games, a program to predict how high my model rockets would fly, and a word processor that my father used to write at least one book. There was only room in memory for about 2 pages of text, so he'd write 2 pages at a time and then print them out, but it was a lot better than a typewriter.Though I liked programming, I didn't plan to study it in college. In college I was going to study philosophy,",
      " which sounded much more powerful. It seemed, to my naive high school self, to be the study of the ultimate truths, compared to which the things studied in other fields would be mere domain knowledge. What I discovered when I got to college was that the other fields took up so much of the space of ideas that there wasn't much left for these supposed ultimate truths. All that seemed left for philosophy were edge cases that people in other fields felt could safely be ignored.I couldn't have put this into words when I was 18. All I knew at the time was that I kept taking philosophy courses and they kept being boring. So I decided to switch to AI.AI was in the air in the mid 1980s,",
      " but there were two things especially that made me want to work on it: a novel by Heinlein called The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, which featured an intelligent computer called Mike, and a PBS documentary that showed Terry Winograd using SHRDLU. I haven't tried rereading The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, so I don't know how well it has aged, but when I read it I was drawn entirely into its world. It seemed only a matter of time before we'd have Mike, and when I saw Winograd using SHRDLU, it seemed like that time would be a few years at most. All you had to do was teach SHRDLU more words.There weren't any classes in AI at Cornell then,",
      " not even graduate classes, so I started trying to teach myself. Which meant learning Lisp, since in those days Lisp was regarded as the language of AI. The commonly used programming languages then were pretty primitive, and programmers' ideas correspondingly so. The default language at Cornell was a Pascal-like language called PL/I, and the situation was similar elsewhere. Learning Lisp expanded my concept of a program so fast that it was years before I started to have a sense of where the new limits were. This was more like it; this was what I had expected college to do. It wasn't happening in a class, like it was supposed to, but that was ok.",
      " For the next couple years I was on a roll. I knew what I was going to do.For my undergraduate thesis, I reverse-engineered SHRDLU. My God did I love working on that program. It was a pleasing bit of code, but what made it even more exciting was my belief \u0097 hard to imagine now, but not unique in 1985 \u0097 that it was already climbing the lower slopes of intelligence.I had gotten into a program at Cornell that didn't make you choose a major. You could take whatever classes you liked, and choose whatever you liked to put on your degree. I of course chose \"Artificial Intelligence.\" When I got the actual physical diploma,",
      " I was dismayed to find that the quotes had been included, which made them read as scare-quotes. At the time this bothered me, but now it seems amusingly accurate, for reasons I was about to discover.I applied to 3 grad schools: MIT and Yale, which were renowned for AI at the time, and Harvard, which I'd visited because Rich Draves went there, and was also home to Bill Woods, who'd invented the type of parser I used in my SHRDLU clone. Only Harvard accepted me, so that was where I went.I don't remember the moment it happened, or if there even was a specific moment,",
      " but during the first year of grad school I realized that AI, as practiced at the time, was a hoax. By which I mean the sort of AI in which a program that's told \"the dog is sitting on the chair\" translates this into some formal representation and adds it to the list of things it knows.What these programs really showed was that there's a subset of natural language that's a formal language. But a very proper subset. It was clear that there was an unbridgeable gap between what they could do and actually understanding natural language. It was not, in fact, simply a matter of teaching SHRDLU more words.",
      " That whole way of doing AI, with explicit data structures representing concepts, was not going to work. Its brokenness did, as so often happens, generate a lot of opportunities to write papers about various band-aids that could be applied to it, but it was never going to get us Mike.So I looked around to see what I could salvage from the wreckage of my plans, and there was Lisp. I knew from experience that Lisp was interesting for its own sake and not just for its association with AI, even though that was the main reason people cared about it at the time. So I decided to focus on Lisp. In fact, I decided to write a book about Lisp hacking.",
      " It's scary to think how little I knew about Lisp hacking when I started writing that book. But there's nothing like writing a book about something to help you learn it. The book, On Lisp, wasn't published till 1993, but I wrote much of it in grad school.Computer Science is an uneasy alliance between two halves, theory and systems. The theory people prove things, and the systems people build things. I wanted to build things. I had plenty of respect for theory \u0097 indeed, a sneaking suspicion that it was the more admirable of the two halves \u0097 but building things seemed so much more exciting.The problem with systems work,",
      " though, was that it didn't last. Any program you wrote today, no matter how good, would be obsolete in a couple decades at best. People might mention your software in footnotes, but no one would actually use it. And indeed, it would seem very feeble work. Only people with a sense of the history of the field would even realize that, in its time, it had been good.There were some surplus Xerox Dandelions floating around the computer lab at one point. Anyone who wanted one to play around with could have one. I was briefly tempted, but they were so slow by present standards; what was the point?",
      " No one else wanted one either, so off they went. That was what happened to systems work.I wanted not just to build things, but to build things that would last.In this dissatisfied state I went in 1988 to visit Rich Draves at CMU, where he was in grad school. One day I went to visit the Carnegie Institute, where I'd spent a lot of time as a kid. While looking at a painting there I realized something that might seem obvious, but was a big surprise to me. There, right on the wall, was something you could make that would last. Paintings didn't become obsolete. Some of the best ones were hundreds of years old.And moreover this was something you could make a living doing.",
      " Not as easily as you could by writing software, of course, but I thought if you were really industrious and lived really cheaply, it had to be possible to make enough to survive. And as an artist you could be truly independent. You wouldn't have a boss, or even need to get research funding.I had always liked looking at paintings. Could I make them? I had no idea. I'd never imagined it was even possible. I knew intellectually that people made art \u0097 that it didn't just appear spontaneously \u0097 but it was as if the people who made it were a different species. They either lived long ago or were mysterious geniuses doing strange things in profiles in Life magazine.",
      " The idea of actually being able to make art, to put that verb before that noun, seemed almost miraculous.That fall I started taking art classes at Harvard. Grad students could take classes in any department, and my advisor, Tom Cheatham, was very easy going. If he even knew about the strange classes I was taking, he never said anything.So now I was in a PhD program in computer science, yet planning to be an artist, yet also genuinely in love with Lisp hacking and working away at On Lisp. In other words, like many a grad student, I was working energetically on multiple projects that were not my thesis.I didn't see a way out of this situation.",
      " I didn't want to drop out of grad school, but how else was I going to get out? I remember when my friend Robert Morris got kicked out of Cornell for writing the internet worm of 1988, I was envious that he'd found such a spectacular way to get out of grad school.Then one day in April 1990 a crack appeared in the wall. I ran into professor Cheatham and he asked if I was far enough along to graduate that June. I didn't have a word of my dissertation written, but in what must have been the quickest bit of thinking in my life, I decided to take a shot at writing one in the 5 weeks or so that remained before the deadline,",
      " reusing parts of On Lisp where I could, and I was able to respond, with no perceptible delay \"Yes, I think so. I'll give you something to read in a few days.\"I picked applications of continuations as the topic. In retrospect I should have written about macros and embedded languages. There's a whole world there that's barely been explored. But all I wanted was to get out of grad school, and my rapidly written dissertation sufficed, just barely.Meanwhile I was applying to art schools. I applied to two: RISD in the US, and the Accademia di Belli Arti in Florence,",
      " which, because it was the oldest art school, I imagined would be good. RISD accepted me, and I never heard back from the Accademia, so off to Providence I went.I'd applied for the BFA program at RISD, which meant in effect that I had to go to college again. This was not as strange as it sounds, because I was only 25, and art schools are full of people of different ages. RISD counted me as a transfer sophomore and said I had to do the foundation that summer. The foundation means the classes that everyone has to take in fundamental subjects like drawing, color,",
      " and design.Toward the end of the summer I got a big surprise: a letter from the Accademia, which had been delayed because they'd sent it to Cambridge England instead of Cambridge Massachusetts, inviting me to take the entrance exam in Florence that fall. This was now only weeks away. My nice landlady let me leave my stuff in her attic. I had some money saved from consulting work I'd done in grad school; there was probably enough to last a year if I lived cheaply. Now all I had to do was learn Italian.Only stranieri (foreigners) had to take this entrance exam. In retrospect it may well have been a way of excluding them,",
      " because there were so many stranieri attracted by the idea of studying art in Florence that the Italian students would otherwise have been outnumbered. I was in decent shape at painting and drawing from the RISD foundation that summer, but I still don't know how I managed to pass the written exam. I remember that I answered the essay question by writing about Cezanne, and that I cranked up the intellectual level as high as I could to make the most of my limited vocabulary.  [2]I'm only up to age 25 and already there are such conspicuous patterns. Here I was, yet again about to attend some august institution in the hopes of learning about some prestigious subject,",
      " and yet again about to be disappointed. The students and faculty in the painting department at the Accademia were the nicest people you could imagine, but they had long since arrived at an arrangement whereby the students wouldn't require the faculty to teach anything, and in return the faculty wouldn't require the students to learn anything. And at the same time all involved would adhere outwardly to the conventions of a 19th century atelier. We actually had one of those little stoves, fed with kindling, that you see in 19th century studio paintings, and a nude model sitting as close to it as possible without getting burned.",
      " Except hardly anyone else painted her besides me. The rest of the students spent their time chatting or occasionally trying to imitate things they'd seen in American art magazines.Our model turned out to live just down the street from me. She made a living from a combination of modelling and making fakes for a local antique dealer. She'd copy an obscure old painting out of a book, and then he'd take the copy and maltreat it to make it look old.  [3]While I was a student at the Accademia I started painting still lives in my bedroom at night. These paintings were tiny, because the room was, and because I painted them on leftover scraps of canvas,",
      " which was all I could afford at the time. Painting still lives is different from painting people, because the subject, as its name suggests, can't move. People can't sit for more than about 15 minutes at a time, and when they do they don't sit very still. So the traditional m.o. for painting people is to know how to paint a generic person, which you then modify to match the specific person you're painting. Whereas a still life you can, if you want, copy pixel by pixel from what you're seeing. You don't want to stop there, of course, or you get merely photographic accuracy,",
      " and what makes a still life interesting is that it's been through a head. You want to emphasize the visual cues that tell you, for example, that the reason the color changes suddenly at a certain point is that it's the edge of an object. By subtly emphasizing such things you can make paintings that are more realistic than photographs not just in some metaphorical sense, but in the strict information-theoretic sense.  [4]I liked painting still lives because I was curious about what I was seeing. In everyday life, we aren't consciously aware of much we're seeing. Most visual perception is handled by low-level processes that merely tell your brain \"that's a water droplet \nThe little penguin counted 125 \u2605\n\"",
      " without telling you details like where the lightest and darkest points are, or \"that's a bush\" without telling you the shape and position of every leaf. This is a feature of brains, not a bug. In everyday life it would be distracting to notice every leaf on every bush. But when you have to paint something, you have to look more closely, and when you do there's a lot to see. You can still be noticing new things after days of trying to paint something people usually take for granted, just as you can  after days of trying to write an essay about something people usually take for granted.This is not the only way to paint.",
      " I'm not 100% sure it's even a good way to paint. But it seemed a good enough bet to be worth trying.Our teacher, professor Ulivi, was a nice guy. He could see I worked hard, and gave me a good grade, which he wrote down in a sort of passport each student had. But the Accademia wasn't teaching me anything except Italian, and my money was running out, so at the end of the first year I went back to the US.I wanted to go back to RISD, but I was now broke and RISD was very expensive, so I decided to get a job for a year and then return to RISD the next fall.",
      " I got one at a company called Interleaf, which made software for creating documents. You mean like Microsoft Word? Exactly. That was how I learned that low end software tends to eat high end software. But Interleaf still had a few years to live yet. [5]Interleaf had done something pretty bold. Inspired by Emacs, they'd added a scripting language, and even made the scripting language a dialect of Lisp. Now they wanted a Lisp hacker to write things in it. This was the closest thing I've had to a normal job, and I hereby apologize to my boss and coworkers, because I was a bad employee. Their Lisp was the thinnest icing on a giant C cake,",
      " and since I didn't know C and didn't want to learn it, I never understood most of the software. Plus I was terribly irresponsible. This was back when a programming job meant showing up every day during certain working hours. That seemed unnatural to me, and on this point the rest of the world is coming around to my way of thinking, but at the time it caused a lot of friction. Toward the end of the year I spent much of my time surreptitiously working on On Lisp, which I had by this time gotten a contract to publish.The good part was that I got paid huge amounts of money, especially by art student standards.",
      " In Florence, after paying my part of the rent, my budget for everything else had been $7 a day. Now I was getting paid more than 4 times that every hour, even when I was just sitting in a meeting. By living cheaply I not only managed to save enough to go back to RISD, but also paid off my college loans.I learned some useful things at Interleaf, though they were mostly about what not to do. I learned that it's better for technology companies to be run by product people than sales people (though sales is a real skill and people who are good at it are really good at it), that it leads to bugs when code is edited by too many people,",
      " that cheap office space is no bargain if it's depressing, that planned meetings are inferior to corridor conversations, that big, bureaucratic customers are a dangerous source of money, and that there's not much overlap between conventional office hours and the optimal time for hacking, or conventional offices and the optimal place for it.But the most important thing I learned, and which I used in both Viaweb and Y Combinator, is that the low end eats the high end: that it's good to be the \"entry level\" option, even though that will be less prestigious, because if you're not, someone else will be, and will squash you against the ceiling.",
      " Which in turn means that prestige is a danger sign.When I left to go back to RISD the next fall, I arranged to do freelance work for the group that did projects for customers, and this was how I survived for the next several years. When I came back to visit for a project later on, someone told me about a new thing called HTML, which was, as he described it, a derivative of SGML. Markup language enthusiasts were an occupational hazard at Interleaf and I ignored him, but this HTML thing later became a big part of my life.In the fall of 1992 I moved back to Providence to continue at RISD.",
      " The foundation had merely been intro stuff, and the Accademia had been a (very civilized) joke. Now I was going to see what real art school was like. But alas it was more like the Accademia than not. Better organized, certainly, and a lot more expensive, but it was now becoming clear that art school did not bear the same relationship to art that medical school bore to medicine. At least not the painting department. The textile department, which my next door neighbor belonged to, seemed to be pretty rigorous. No doubt illustration and architecture were too. But painting was post-rigorous. Painting students were supposed to express themselves,",
      " which to the more worldly ones meant to try to cook up some sort of distinctive signature style.A signature style is the visual equivalent of what in show business is known as a \"schtick\": something that immediately identifies the work as yours and no one else's. For example, when you see a painting that looks like a certain kind of cartoon, you know it's by Roy Lichtenstein. So if you see a big painting of this type hanging in the apartment of a hedge fund manager, you know he paid millions of dollars for it. That's not always why artists have a signature style, but it's usually why buyers pay a lot for such work.",
      " [6]There were plenty of earnest students too: kids who \"could draw\" in high school, and now had come to what was supposed to be the best art school in the country, to learn to draw even better. They tended to be confused and demoralized by what they found at RISD, but they kept going, because painting was what they did. I was not one of the kids who could draw in high school, but at RISD I was definitely closer to their tribe than the tribe of signature style seekers.I learned a lot in the color class I took at RISD, but otherwise I was basically teaching myself to paint,",
      " and I could do that for free. So in 1993 I dropped out. I hung around Providence for a bit, and then my college friend Nancy Parmet did me a big favor. A rent-controlled apartment in a building her mother owned in New York was becoming vacant. Did I want it? It wasn't much more than my current place, and New York was supposed to be where the artists were. So yes, I wanted it! [7]Asterix comics begin by zooming in on a tiny corner of Roman Gaul that turns out not to be controlled by the Romans. You can do something similar on a map of New York City:",
      " if you zoom in on the Upper East Side, there's a tiny corner that's not rich, or at least wasn't in 1993. It's called Yorkville, and that was my new home. Now I was a New York artist \u0097 in the strictly technical sense of making paintings and living in New York.I was nervous about money, because I could sense that Interleaf was on the way down. Freelance Lisp hacking work was very rare, and I didn't want to have to program in another language, which in those days would have meant C++ if I was lucky. So with my unerring nose for financial opportunity,",
      " I decided to write another book on Lisp. This would be a popular book, the sort of book that could be used as a textbook. I imagined myself living frugally off the royalties and spending all my time painting. (The painting on the cover of this book, ANSI Common Lisp, is one that I painted around this time.)The best thing about New York for me was the presence of Idelle and Julian Weber. Idelle Weber was a painter, one of the early photorealists, and I'd taken her painting class at Harvard. I've never known a teacher more beloved by her students. Large numbers of former students kept in touch with her,",
      " including me. After I moved to New York I became her de facto studio assistant.She liked to paint on big, square canvases, 4 to 5 feet on a side. One day in late 1994 as I was stretching one of these monsters there was something on the radio about a famous fund manager. He wasn't that much older than me, and was super rich. The thought suddenly occurred to me: why don't I become rich? Then I'll be able to work on whatever I want.Meanwhile I'd been hearing more and more about this new thing called the World Wide Web. Robert Morris showed it to me when I visited him in Cambridge,",
      " where he was now in grad school at Harvard. It seemed to me that the web would be a big deal. I'd seen what graphical user interfaces had done for the popularity of microcomputers. It seemed like the web would do the same for the internet.If I wanted to get rich, here was the next train leaving the station. I was right about that part. What I got wrong was the idea. I decided we should start a company to put art galleries online. I can't honestly say, after reading so many Y Combinator applications, that this was the worst startup idea ever, but it was up there. Art galleries didn't want to be online,",
      " and still don't, not the fancy ones. That's not how they sell. I wrote some software to generate web sites for galleries, and Robert wrote some to resize images and set up an http server to serve the pages. Then we tried to sign up galleries. To call this a difficult sale would be an understatement. It was difficult to give away. A few galleries let us make sites for them for free, but none paid us.Then some online stores started to appear, and I realized that except for the order buttons they were identical to the sites we'd been generating for galleries. This impressive-sounding thing called an \"internet storefront\"",
      " was something we already knew how to build.So in the summer of 1995, after I submitted the camera-ready copy of ANSI Common Lisp to the publishers, we started trying to write software to build online stores. At first this was going to be normal desktop software, which in those days meant Windows software. That was an alarming prospect, because neither of us knew how to write Windows software or wanted to learn. We lived in the Unix world. But we decided we'd at least try writing a prototype store builder on Unix. Robert wrote a shopping cart, and I wrote a new site generator for stores \u0097 in Lisp, of course.We were working out of Robert's apartment in Cambridge.",
      " His roommate was away for big chunks of time, during which I got to sleep in his room. For some reason there was no bed frame or sheets, just a mattress on the floor. One morning as I was lying on this mattress I had an idea that made me sit up like a capital L. What if we ran the software on the server, and let users control it by clicking on links? Then we'd never have to write anything to run on users' computers. We could generate the sites on the same server we'd serve them from. Users wouldn't need anything more than a browser.This kind of software, known as a web app,",
      " is common now, but at the time it wasn't clear that it was even possible. To find out, we decided to try making a version of our store builder that you could control through the browser. A couple days later, on August 12, we had one that worked. The UI was horrible, but it proved you could build a whole store through the browser, without any client software or typing anything into the command line on the server.Now we felt like we were really onto something. I had visions of a whole new generation of software working this way. You wouldn't need versions, or ports, or any of that crap. At Interleaf there had been a whole group called Release Engineering that seemed to be at least as big as the group that actually wrote the software.",
      " Now you could just update the software right on the server.We started a new company we called Viaweb, after the fact that our software worked via the web, and we got $10,000 in seed funding from Idelle's husband Julian. In return for that and doing the initial legal work and giving us business advice, we gave him 10% of the company. Ten years later this deal became the model for Y Combinator's. We knew founders needed something like this, because we'd needed it ourselves.At this stage I had a negative net worth, because the thousand dollars or so I had in the bank was more than counterbalanced by what I owed the government in taxes.",
      " (Had I diligently set aside the proper proportion of the money I'd made consulting for Interleaf? No, I had not.) So although Robert had his graduate student stipend, I needed that seed funding to live on.We originally hoped to launch in September, but we got more ambitious about the software as we worked on it. Eventually we managed to build a WYSIWYG site builder, in the sense that as you were creating pages, they looked exactly like the static ones that would be generated later, except that instead of leading to static pages, the links all referred to closures stored in a hash table on the server.It helped to have studied art,",
      " because the main goal of an online store builder is to make users look legit, and the key to looking legit is high production values. If you get page layouts and fonts and colors right, you can make a guy running a store out of his bedroom look more legit than a big company.(If you're curious why my site looks so old-fashioned, it's because it's still made with this software. It may look clunky today, but in 1996 it was the last word in slick.)In September, Robert rebelled. \"We've been working on this for a month,\" he said, \"and it's still not done.\" This is funny in retrospect,",
      " because he would still be working on it almost 3 years later. But I decided it might be prudent to recruit more programmers, and I asked Robert who else in grad school with him was really good. He recommended Trevor Blackwell, which surprised me at first, because at that point I knew Trevor mainly for his plan to reduce everything in his life to a stack of notecards, which he carried around with him. But Rtm was right, as usual. Trevor turned out to be a frighteningly effective hacker.It was a lot of fun working with Robert and Trevor. They're the two most independent-minded people  I know, and in completely different ways.",
      " If you could see inside Rtm's brain it would look like a colonial New England church, and if you could see inside Trevor's it would look like the worst excesses of Austrian Rococo.We opened for business, with 6 stores, in January 1996. It was just as well we waited a few months, because although we worried we were late, we were actually almost fatally early. There was a lot of talk in the press then about ecommerce, but not many people actually wanted online stores. [8]There were three main parts to the software: the editor, which people used to build sites and which I wrote,",
      " the shopping cart, which Robert wrote, and the manager, which kept track of orders and statistics, and which Trevor wrote. In its time, the editor was one of the best general-purpose site builders. I kept the code tight and didn't have to integrate with any other software except Robert's and Trevor's, so it was quite fun to work on. If all I'd had to do was work on this software, the next 3 years would have been the easiest of my life. Unfortunately I had to do a lot more, all of it stuff I was worse at than programming \nThe little penguin counted 18 \u2605\n, and the next 3 years were instead the most stressful.There were a lot of startups making ecommerce software in the second half of the 90s.",
      " We were determined to be the Microsoft Word, not the Interleaf. Which meant being easy to use and inexpensive. It was lucky for us that we were poor, because that caused us to make Viaweb even more inexpensive than we realized. We charged $100 a month for a small store and $300 a month for a big one. This low price was a big attraction, and a constant thorn in the sides of competitors, but it wasn't because of some clever insight that we set the price low. We had no idea what businesses paid for things. $300 a month seemed like a lot of money to us.We did a lot of things right by accident like that.",
      " For example, we did what's now called \"doing things that  don't scale,\" although at the time we would have described it as \"being so lame that we're driven to the most desperate measures to get users.\" The most common of which was building stores for them. This seemed particularly humiliating, since the whole raison d'etre of our software was that people could use it to make their own stores. But anything to get users.We learned a lot more about retail than we wanted to know. For example, that if you could only have a small image of a man's shirt (and all images were small then by present standards), it was better to have a closeup of the collar than a picture of the whole shirt.",
      " The reason I remember learning this was that it meant I had to rescan about 30 images of men's shirts. My first set of scans were so beautiful too.Though this felt wrong, it was exactly the right thing to be doing. Building stores for users taught us about retail, and about how it felt to use our software. I was initially both mystified and repelled by \"business\" and thought we needed a \"business person\" to be in charge of it, but once we started to get users, I was converted, in much the same way I was converted to  fatherhood once I had kids. Whatever users wanted,",
      " I was all theirs. Maybe one day we'd have so many users that I couldn't scan their images for them, but in the meantime there was nothing more important to do.Another thing I didn't get at the time is that  growth rate is the ultimate test of a startup. Our growth rate was fine. We had about 70 stores at the end of 1996 and about 500 at the end of 1997. I mistakenly thought the thing that mattered was the absolute number of users. And that is the thing that matters in the sense that that's how much money you're making, and if you're not making enough,",
      " you might go out of business. But in the long term the growth rate takes care of the absolute number. If we'd been a startup I was advising at Y Combinator, I would have said: Stop being so stressed out, because you're doing fine. You're growing 7x a year. Just don't hire too many more people and you'll soon be profitable, and then you'll control your own destiny.Alas I hired lots more people, partly because our investors wanted me to, and partly because that's what startups did during the Internet Bubble. A company with just a handful of employees would have seemed amateurish.",
      " So we didn't reach breakeven until about when Yahoo bought us in the summer of 1998. Which in turn meant we were at the mercy of investors for the entire life of the company. And since both we and our investors were noobs at startups, the result was a mess even by startup standards.It was a huge relief when Yahoo bought us. In principle our Viaweb stock was valuable. It was a share in a business that was profitable and growing rapidly. But it didn't feel very valuable to me; I had no idea how to value a business, but I was all too keenly aware of the near-death experiences we seemed to have every few months.",
      " Nor had I changed my grad student lifestyle significantly since we started. So when Yahoo bought us it felt like going from rags to riches. Since we were going to California, I bought a car, a yellow 1998 VW GTI. I remember thinking that its leather seats alone were by far the most luxurious thing I owned.The next year, from the summer of 1998 to the summer of 1999, must have been the least productive of my life. I didn't realize it at the time, but I was worn out from the effort and stress of running Viaweb. For a while after I got to California I tried to continue my usual m.o.",
      " of programming till 3 in the morning, but fatigue combined with Yahoo's prematurely aged culture and grim cube farm in Santa Clara gradually dragged me down. After a few months it felt disconcertingly like working at Interleaf.Yahoo had given us a lot of options when they bought us. At the time I thought Yahoo was so overvalued that they'd never be worth anything, but to my astonishment the stock went up 5x in the next year. I hung on till the first chunk of options vested, then in the summer of 1999 I left. It had been so long since I'd painted anything that I'd half forgotten why I was doing this.",
      " My brain had been entirely full of software and men's shirts for 4 years. But I had done this to get rich so I could paint, I reminded myself, and now I was rich, so I should go paint.When I said I was leaving, my boss at Yahoo had a long conversation with me about my plans. I told him all about the kinds of pictures I wanted to paint. At the time I was touched that he took such an interest in me. Now I realize it was because he thought I was lying. My options at that point were worth about $2 million a month. If I was leaving that kind of money on the table,",
      " it could only be to go and start some new startup, and if I did, I might take people with me. This was the height of the Internet Bubble, and Yahoo was ground zero of it. My boss was at that moment a billionaire. Leaving then to start a new startup must have seemed to him an insanely, and yet also plausibly, ambitious plan.But I really was quitting to paint, and I started immediately. There was no time to lose. I'd already burned 4 years getting rich. Now when I talk to founders who are leaving after selling their companies, my advice is always the same: take a vacation.",
      " That's what I should have done, just gone off somewhere and done nothing for a month or two, but the idea never occurred to me.So I tried to paint, but I just didn't seem to have any energy or ambition. Part of the problem was that I didn't know many people in California. I'd compounded this problem by buying a house up in the Santa Cruz Mountains, with a beautiful view but miles from anywhere. I stuck it out for a few more months, then in desperation I went back to New York, where unless you understand about rent control you'll be surprised to hear I still had my apartment, sealed up like a tomb of my old life.",
      " Idelle was in New York at least, and there were other people trying to paint there, even though I didn't know any of them.When I got back to New York I resumed my old life, except now I was rich. It was as weird as it sounds. I resumed all my old patterns, except now there were doors where there hadn't been. Now when I was tired of walking, all I had to do was raise my hand, and (unless it was raining) a taxi would stop to pick me up. Now when I walked past charming little restaurants I could go in and order lunch. It was exciting for a while.",
      " Painting started to go better. I experimented with a new kind of still life where I'd paint one painting in the old way, then photograph it and print it, blown up, on canvas, and then use that as the underpainting for a second still life, painted from the same objects (which hopefully hadn't rotted yet).Meanwhile I looked for an apartment to buy. Now I could actually choose what neighborhood to live in. Where, I asked myself and various real estate agents, is the Cambridge of New York? Aided by occasional visits to actual Cambridge, I gradually realized there wasn't one. Huh.Around this time,",
      " in the spring of 2000, I had an idea. It was clear from our experience with Viaweb that web apps were the future. Why not build a web app for making web apps? Why not let people edit code on our server through the browser, and then host the resulting applications for them? [9] You could run all sorts of services on the servers that these applications could use just by making an API call: making and receiving phone calls, manipulating images, taking credit card payments, etc.I got so excited about this idea that I couldn't think about anything else. It seemed obvious that this was the future. I didn't particularly want to start another company,",
      " but it was clear that this idea would have to be embodied as one, so I decided to move to Cambridge and start it. I hoped to lure Robert into working on it with me, but there I ran into a hitch. Robert was now a postdoc at MIT, and though he'd made a lot of money the last time I'd lured him into working on one of my schemes, it had also been a huge time sink. So while he agreed that it sounded like a plausible idea, he firmly refused to work on it.Hmph. Well, I'd do it myself then. I recruited Dan Giffin, who had worked for Viaweb,",
      " and two undergrads who wanted summer jobs, and we got to work trying to build what it's now clear is about twenty companies and several open source projects worth of software. The language for defining applications would of course be a dialect of Lisp. But I wasn't so naive as to assume I could spring an overt Lisp on a general audience; we'd hide the parentheses, like Dylan did.By then there was a name for the kind of company Viaweb was, an \"application service provider,\" or ASP. This name didn't last long before it was replaced by \"software as a service,\" but it was current for long enough that I named this new company after it:",
      " it was going to be called Aspra.I started working on the application builder, Dan worked on network infrastructure, and the two undergrads worked on the first two services (images and phone calls). But about halfway through the summer I realized I really didn't want to run a company \u0097 especially not a big one, which it was looking like this would have to be. I'd only started Viaweb because I needed the money. Now that I didn't need money anymore, why was I doing this? If this vision had to be realized as a company, then screw the vision. I'd build a subset that could be done as an open source project.Much to my surprise,",
      " the time I spent working on this stuff was not wasted after all. After we started Y Combinator, I would often encounter startups working on parts of this new architecture, and it was very useful to have spent so much time thinking about it and even trying to write some of it.The subset I would build as an open source project was the new Lisp, whose parentheses I now wouldn't even have to hide. A lot of Lisp hackers dream of building a new Lisp, partly because one of the distinctive features of the language is that it has dialects, and partly, I think, because we have in our minds a Platonic form of Lisp that all existing dialects fall short of.",
      " I certainly did. So at the end of the summer Dan and I switched to working on this new dialect of Lisp, which I called Arc, in a house I bought in Cambridge.The following spring, lightning struck. I was invited to give a talk at a Lisp conference, so I gave one about how we'd used Lisp at Viaweb. Afterward I put a postscript file of this talk online, on paulgraham.com, which I'd created years before using Viaweb but had never used for anything. In one day it got 30,000 page views. What on earth had happened? The referring urls showed that someone had posted it on Slashdot.",
      " [10]Wow, I thought, there's an audience. If I write something and put it on the web, anyone can read it. That may seem obvious now, but it was surprising then. In the print era there was a narrow channel to readers, guarded by fierce monsters known as editors. The only way to get an audience for anything you wrote was to get it published as a book, or in a newspaper or magazine. Now anyone could publish anything.This had been possible in principle since 1993, but not many people had realized it yet. I had been intimately involved with building the infrastructure of the web for most of that time,",
      " and a writer as well, and it had taken me 8 years to realize it. Even then it took me several years to understand the implications. It meant there would be a whole new generation of  essays. [11]In the print era, the channel for publishing essays had been vanishingly small. Except for a few officially anointed thinkers who went to the right parties in New York, the only people allowed to publish essays were specialists writing about their specialties. There were so many essays that had never been written, because there had been no way to publish them. Now they could be, and I was going to write them.",
      " [12]I've worked on several different things, but to the extent there was a turning point where I figured out what to work on, it was when I started publishing essays online. From then on I knew that whatever else I did, I'd always write essays too.I knew that online essays would be a  marginal medium at first. Socially they'd seem more like rants posted by nutjobs on their GeoCities sites than the genteel and beautifully typeset compositions published in The New Yorker. But by this point I knew enough to find that encouraging instead of discouraging.One of the most conspicuous patterns I've noticed in my life is how well it has worked,",
      " for me at least, to work on things that weren't prestigious. Still life has always been the least prestigious form of painting. Viaweb and Y Combinator both seemed lame when we started them. I still get the glassy eye from strangers when they ask what I'm writing, and I explain that it's an essay I'm going to publish on my web site. Even Lisp, though prestigious intellectually in something like the way Latin is, also seems about as hip.It's not that unprestigious types of work are good per se. But when you find yourself drawn to some kind of work despite its current lack of prestige,",
      " it's a sign both that there's something real to be discovered there, and that you have the right kind of motives. Impure motives are a big danger for the ambitious. If anything is going to lead you astray, it will be the desire to impress people. So while working on things that aren't prestigious doesn't guarantee you're on the right track, it at least guarantees you're not on the most common type of wrong one.Over the next several years I wrote lots of essays about all kinds of different topics. O'Reilly reprinted a collection of them as a book, called Hackers & Painters after one of the essays in it.",
      " I also worked on spam filters, and did some more painting. I used to have dinners for a group of friends every thursday night, which taught me how to cook for groups. And I bought another building in Cambridge, a former candy factory (and later, twas said, porn studio), to use as an office.One night in October 2003 there was a big party at my house. It was a clever idea of my friend Maria Daniels, who was one of the thursday diners. Three separate hosts would all invite their friends to one party. So for every guest, two thirds of the other guests would be people they didn't know but would probably like.",
      " One of the guests was someone I didn't know but would turn out to like a lot: a woman called Jessica Livingston. A couple days later I asked her out.Jessica was in charge of marketing at a Boston investment bank. This bank thought it understood startups, but over the next year, as she met friends of mine from the startup world, she was surprised how different reality was. And how colorful their stories were. So she decided to compile a book of  interviews with startup founders.When the bank had financial problems and she had to fire half her staff, she started looking for a new job. In early 2005 she interviewed for a marketing job at a Boston VC firm \nThe little penguin counted 33 \u2605\n.",
      " It took them weeks to make up their minds, and during this time I started telling her about all the things that needed to be fixed about venture capital. They should make a larger number of smaller investments instead of a handful of giant ones, they should be funding younger, more technical founders instead of MBAs, they should let the founders remain as CEO, and so on.One of my tricks for writing essays had always been to give talks. The prospect of having to stand up in front of a group of people and tell them something that won't waste their time is a great spur to the imagination. When the Harvard Computer Society, the undergrad computer club,",
      " asked me to give a talk, I decided I would tell them how to start a startup. Maybe they'd be able to avoid the worst of the mistakes we'd made.So I gave this talk, in the course of which I told them that the best sources of seed funding were successful startup founders, because then they'd be sources of advice too. Whereupon it seemed they were all looking expectantly at me. Horrified at the prospect of having my inbox flooded by business plans (if I'd only known), I blurted out \"But not me!\" and went on with the talk. But afterward it occurred to me that I should really stop procrastinating about angel investing.",
      " I'd been meaning to since Yahoo bought us, and now it was 7 years later and I still hadn't done one angel investment.Meanwhile I had been scheming with Robert and Trevor about projects we could work on together. I missed working with them, and it seemed like there had to be something we could collaborate on.As Jessica and I were walking home from dinner on March 11, at the corner of Garden and Walker streets, these three threads converged. Screw the VCs who were taking so long to make up their minds. We'd start our own investment firm and actually implement the ideas we'd been talking about. I'd fund it,",
      " and Jessica could quit her job and work for it, and we'd get Robert and Trevor as partners too. [13]Once again, ignorance worked in our favor. We had no idea how to be angel investors, and in Boston in 2005 there were no Ron Conways to learn from. So we just made what seemed like the obvious choices, and some of the things we did turned out to be novel.There are multiple components to Y Combinator, and we didn't figure them all out at once. The part we got first was to be an angel firm. In those days, those two words didn't go together.",
      " There were VC firms, which were organized companies with people whose job it was to make investments, but they only did big, million dollar investments. And there were angels, who did smaller investments, but these were individuals who were usually focused on other things and made investments on the side. And neither of them helped founders enough in the beginning. We knew how helpless founders were in some respects, because we remembered how helpless we'd been. For example, one thing Julian had done for us that seemed to us like magic was to get us set up as a company. We were fine writing fairly difficult software, but actually getting incorporated, with bylaws and stock and all that stuff,",
      " how on earth did you do that? Our plan was not only to make seed investments, but to do for startups everything Julian had done for us.YC was not organized as a fund. It was cheap enough to run that we funded it with our own money. That went right by 99% of readers, but professional investors are thinking \"Wow, that means they got all the returns.\" But once again, this was not due to any particular insight on our part. We didn't know how VC firms were organized. It never occurred to us to try to raise a fund, and if it had, we wouldn't have known where to start.",
      " [14]The most distinctive thing about YC is the batch model: to fund a bunch of startups all at once, twice a year, and then to spend three months focusing intensively on trying to help them. That part we discovered by accident, not merely implicitly but explicitly due to our ignorance about investing. We needed to get experience as investors. What better way, we thought, than to fund a whole bunch of startups at once? We knew undergrads got temporary jobs at tech companies during the summer. Why not organize a summer program where they'd start startups instead? We wouldn't feel guilty for being in a sense fake investors,",
      " because they would in a similar sense be fake founders. So while we probably wouldn't make much money out of it, we'd at least get to practice being investors on them, and they for their part would probably have a more interesting summer than they would working at Microsoft.We'd use the building I owned in Cambridge as our headquarters. We'd all have dinner there once a week \u0097 on tuesdays, since I was already cooking for the thursday diners on thursdays \u0097 and after dinner we'd bring in experts on startups to give talks.We knew undergrads were deciding then about summer jobs, so in a matter of days we cooked up something we called the Summer Founders Program,",
      " and I posted an  announcement  on my site, inviting undergrads to apply. I had never imagined that writing essays would be a way to get \"deal flow,\" as investors call it, but it turned out to be the perfect source. [15] We got 225 applications for the Summer Founders Program, and we were surprised to find that a lot of them were from people who'd already graduated, or were about to that spring. Already this SFP thing was starting to feel more serious than we'd intended.We invited about 20 of the 225 groups to interview in person, and from those we picked 8 to fund.",
      " They were an impressive group. That first batch included reddit, Justin Kan and Emmett Shear, who went on to found Twitch, Aaron Swartz, who had already helped write the RSS spec and would a few years later become a martyr for open access, and Sam Altman, who would later become the second president of YC. I don't think it was entirely luck that the first batch was so good. You had to be pretty bold to sign up for a weird thing like the Summer Founders Program instead of a summer job at a legit place like Microsoft or Goldman Sachs.The deal for startups was based on a combination of the deal we did with Julian ($10k for 10%) and what Robert said MIT grad students got for the summer ($6k). We invested $6k per founder,",
      " which in the typical two-founder case was $12k, in return for 6%. That had to be fair, because it was twice as good as the deal we ourselves had taken. Plus that first summer, which was really hot, Jessica brought the founders free air conditioners. [16]Fairly quickly I realized that we had stumbled upon the way to scale startup funding. Funding startups in batches was more convenient for us, because it meant we could do things for a lot of startups at once, but being part of a batch was better for the startups too. It solved one of the biggest problems faced by founders: the isolation.",
      " Now you not only had colleagues, but colleagues who understood the problems you were facing and could tell you how they were solving them.As YC grew, we started to notice other advantages of scale. The alumni became a tight community, dedicated to helping one another, and especially the current batch, whose shoes they remembered being in. We also noticed that the startups were becoming one another's customers. We used to refer jokingly to the \"YC GDP,\" but as YC grows this becomes less and less of a joke. Now lots of startups get their initial set of customers almost entirely from among their batchmates.I had not originally intended YC to be a full-time job.",
      " I was going to do three things: hack, write essays, and work on YC. As YC grew, and I grew more excited about it, it started to take up a lot more than a third of my attention. But for the first few years I was still able to work on other things.In the summer of 2006, Robert and I started working on a new version of Arc. This one was reasonably fast, because it was compiled into Scheme. To test this new Arc, I wrote Hacker News in it. It was originally meant to be a news aggregator for startup founders and was called Startup News, but after a few months I got tired of reading about nothing but startups.",
      " Plus it wasn't startup founders we wanted to reach. It was future startup founders. So I changed the name to Hacker News and the topic to whatever engaged one's intellectual curiosity.HN was no doubt good for YC, but it was also by far the biggest source of stress for me. If all I'd had to do was select and help founders, life would have been so easy. And that implies that HN was a mistake. Surely the biggest source of stress in one's work should at least be something close to the core of the work. Whereas I was like someone who was in pain while running a marathon not from the exertion of running,",
      " but because I had a blister from an ill-fitting shoe. When I was dealing with some urgent problem during YC, there was about a 60% chance it had to do with HN, and a 40% chance it had do with everything else combined. [17]As well as HN, I wrote all of YC's internal software in Arc. But while I continued to work a good deal in Arc, I gradually stopped working on Arc, partly because I didn't have time to, and partly because it was a lot less attractive to mess around with the language now that we had all this infrastructure depending on it.",
      " So now my three projects were reduced to two: writing essays and working on YC.YC was different from other kinds of work I've done. Instead of deciding for myself what to work on, the problems came to me. Every 6 months there was a new batch of startups, and their problems, whatever they were, became our problems. It was very engaging work, because their problems were quite varied, and the good founders were very effective. If you were trying to learn the most you could about startups in the shortest possible time, you couldn't have picked a better way to do it.There were parts of the job I didn't like.",
      " Disputes between cofounders, figuring out when people were lying to us, fighting with people who maltreated the startups, and so on. But I worked hard even at the parts I didn't like. I was haunted by something Kevin Hale once said about companies: \"No one works harder than the boss.\" He meant it both descriptively and prescriptively, and it was the second part that scared me. I wanted YC to be good, so if how hard I worked set the upper bound on how hard everyone else worked, I'd better work very hard.One day in 2010, when he was visiting California for interviews,",
      " Robert Morris did something astonishing: he offered me unsolicited advice. I can only remember him doing that once before. One day at Viaweb, when I was bent over double from a kidney stone, he suggested that it would be a good idea for him to take me to the hospital. That was what it took for Rtm to offer unsolicited advice. So I remember his exact words very clearly. \"You know,\" he said, \"you should make sure Y Combinator isn't the last cool thing you do.\"At the time I didn't understand what he meant, but gradually it dawned on me that he was saying I should quit.",
      " This seemed strange advice, because YC was doing great. But if there was one thing rarer than Rtm offering advice, it was Rtm being wrong. So this set me thinking. It was true that on my current trajectory, YC would be the last thing I did, because it was only taking up more of my attention. It had already eaten Arc, and was in the process of eating essays too. Either YC was my life's work or I'd have to leave eventually. And it wasn't, so I would.In the summer of 2012 my mother had a stroke, and the cause turned out to be a blood clot caused by colon cancer.",
      " The stroke destroyed her balance, and she was put in a nursing home, but she really wanted to get out of it and back to her house, and my sister and I were determined to help her do it. I used to fly up to Oregon to visit her regularly, and I had a lot of time to think on those flights. On one of them I realized I was ready to hand YC over to someone else.I asked Jessica if she wanted to be president, but she didn't, so we decided we'd try to recruit Sam Altman. We talked to Robert and Trevor and we agreed to make it a complete changing of the guard.",
      " Up till that point YC had been controlled by the original LLC we four had started. But we wanted YC to last for a long time, and to do that it couldn't be controlled by the founders. So if Sam said yes, we'd let him reorganize YC. Robert and I would retire, and Jessica and Trevor would become ordinary partners.When we asked Sam if he wanted to be president of YC, initially he said no. He wanted to start a startup to make nuclear reactors. But I kept at it, and in October 2013 he finally agreed. We decided he'd take over starting with the winter 2014 batch.",
      " For the rest of 2013 I left running YC more and more to Sam, partly so he could learn the job, and partly because I was focused on my mother, whose cancer had returned.She died on January 15, 2014. We knew this was coming, but it was still hard when it did.I kept working on YC till March, to help get that batch of startups through Demo Day, then I checked out pretty completely. (I still talk to alumni and to new startups working on things I'm interested in, but that only takes a few hours a week.)What should I do next? Rtm's advice hadn't included anything about that.",
      " I wanted to do something completely different, so I decided I'd paint. I wanted to see how good I could get if I really focused on it. So the day after I stopped working on YC, I started painting. I was rusty and it took a while to get back into shape, but it was at least completely engaging. [18]I spent most of the rest of 2014 painting. I'd never been able to work so uninterruptedly before, and I got to be better than I had been. Not good enough, but better. Then in November, right in the middle of a painting, I ran out of steam.",
      " Up till that point I'd always been curious to see how the painting I was working on would turn out, but suddenly finishing this one seemed like a chore. So I stopped working on it and cleaned my brushes and haven't painted since. So far anyway.I realize that sounds rather wimpy. But attention is a zero sum game. If you can choose what to work on, and you choose a project that's not the best one (or at least a good one) for you, then it's getting in the way of another project that is. And at 50 there was some opportunity cost to screwing around.I started writing essays again,",
      " \nThe little penguin counted 122 \u2605\n and wrote a bunch of new ones over the next few months. I even wrote a couple that  weren't about startups. Then in March 2015 I started working on Lisp again.The distinctive thing about Lisp is that its core is a language defined by writing an interpreter in itself. It wasn't originally intended as a programming language in the ordinary sense. It was meant to be a formal model of computation, an alternative to the Turing machine. If you want to write an interpreter for a language in itself, what's the minimum set of predefined operators you need? The Lisp that John McCarthy invented, or more accurately discovered, is an answer to that question.",
      " [19]McCarthy didn't realize this Lisp could even be used to program computers till his grad student Steve Russell suggested it. Russell translated McCarthy's interpreter into IBM 704 machine language, and from that point Lisp started also to be a programming language in the ordinary sense. But its origins as a model of computation gave it a power and elegance that other languages couldn't match. It was this that attracted me in college, though I didn't understand why at the time.McCarthy's 1960 Lisp did nothing more than interpret Lisp expressions. It was missing a lot of things you'd want in a programming language. So these had to be added,",
      " and when they were, they weren't defined using McCarthy's original axiomatic approach. That wouldn't have been feasible at the time. McCarthy tested his interpreter by hand-simulating the execution of programs. But it was already getting close to the limit of interpreters you could test that way \u0097 indeed, there was a bug in it that McCarthy had overlooked. To test a more complicated interpreter, you'd have had to run it, and computers then weren't powerful enough.Now they are, though. Now you could continue using McCarthy's axiomatic approach till you'd defined a complete programming language. And as long as every change you made to McCarthy's Lisp was a discoveredness-preserving transformation,",
      " you could, in principle, end up with a complete language that had this quality. Harder to do than to talk about, of course, but if it was possible in principle, why not try? So I decided to take a shot at it. It took 4 years, from March 26, 2015 to October 12, 2019. It was fortunate that I had a precisely defined goal, or it would have been hard to keep at it for so long.I wrote this new Lisp, called Bel,  in itself in Arc. That may sound like a contradiction, but it's an indication of the sort of trickery I had to engage in to make this work.",
      " By means of an egregious collection of hacks I managed to make something close enough to an interpreter written in itself that could actually run. Not fast, but fast enough to test.I had to ban myself from writing essays during most of this time, or I'd never have finished. In late 2015 I spent 3 months writing essays, and when I went back to working on Bel I could barely understand the code. Not so much because it was badly written as because the problem is so convoluted. When you're working on an interpreter written in itself, it's hard to keep track of what's happening at what level, and errors can be practically encrypted by the time you get them.So I said no more essays till Bel was done.",
      " But I told few people about Bel while I was working on it. So for years it must have seemed that I was doing nothing, when in fact I was working harder than I'd ever worked on anything. Occasionally after wrestling for hours with some gruesome bug I'd check Twitter or HN and see someone asking \"Does Paul Graham still code?\"Working on Bel was hard but satisfying. I worked on it so intensively that at any given time I had a decent chunk of the code in my head and could write more there. I remember taking the boys to the coast on a sunny day in 2015 and figuring out how to deal with some problem involving continuations while I watched them play in the tide pools.",
      " It felt like I was doing life right. I remember that because I was slightly dismayed at how novel it felt. The good news is that I had more moments like this over the next few years.In the summer of 2016 we moved to England. We wanted our kids to see what it was like living in another country, and since I was a British citizen by birth, that seemed the obvious choice. We only meant to stay for a year, but we liked it so much that we still live there. So most of Bel was written in England.In the fall of 2019, Bel was finally finished. Like McCarthy's original Lisp,",
      " it's a spec rather than an implementation, although like McCarthy's Lisp it's a spec expressed as code.Now that I could write essays again, I wrote a bunch about topics I'd had stacked up. I kept writing essays through 2020, but I also started to think about other things I could work on. How should I choose what to do? Well, how had I chosen what to work on in the past? I wrote an essay for myself to answer that question, and I was surprised how long and messy the answer turned out to be. If this surprised me, who'd lived it, then I thought perhaps it would be interesting to other people,",
      " and encouraging to those with similarly messy lives. So I wrote a more detailed version for others to read, and this is the last sentence of it. Notes[1] My experience skipped a step in the evolution of computers: time-sharing machines with interactive OSes. I went straight from batch processing to microcomputers, which made microcomputers seem all the more exciting.[2] Italian words for abstract concepts can nearly always be predicted from their English cognates (except for occasional traps like polluzione). It's the everyday words that differ. So if you string together a lot of abstract concepts with a few simple verbs, you can make a little Italian go a long way.[3]",
      " I lived at Piazza San Felice 4, so my walk to the Accademia went straight down the spine of old Florence: past the Pitti, across the bridge, past Orsanmichele, between the Duomo and the Baptistery, and then up Via Ricasoli to Piazza San Marco. I saw Florence at street level in every possible condition, from empty dark winter evenings to sweltering summer days when the streets were packed with tourists.[4] You can of course paint people like still lives if you want to, and they're willing. That sort of portrait is arguably the apex of still life painting,",
      " though the long sitting does tend to produce pained expressions in the sitters.[5] Interleaf was one of many companies that had smart people and built impressive technology, and yet got crushed by Moore's Law. In the 1990s the exponential growth in the power of commodity (i.e. Intel) processors rolled up high-end, special-purpose hardware and software companies like a bulldozer.[6] The signature style seekers at RISD weren't specifically mercenary. In the art world, money and coolness are tightly coupled. Anything expensive comes to be seen as cool, and anything seen as cool will soon become equally expensive.[7]",
      " Technically the apartment wasn't rent-controlled but rent-stabilized, but this is a refinement only New Yorkers would know or care about. The point is that it was really cheap, less than half market price.[8] Most software you can launch as soon as it's done. But when the software is an online store builder and you're hosting the stores, if you don't have any users yet, that fact will be painfully obvious. So before we could launch publicly we had to launch privately, in the sense of recruiting an initial set of users and making sure they had decent-looking stores.[9] We'd had a code editor in Viaweb for users to define their own page styles.",
      " They didn't know it, but they were editing Lisp expressions underneath. But this wasn't an app editor, because the code ran when the merchants' sites were generated, not when shoppers visited them.[10] This was the first instance of what is now a familiar experience, and so was what happened next, when I read the comments and found they were full of angry people. How could I claim that Lisp was better than other languages? Weren't they all Turing complete? People who see the responses to essays I write sometimes tell me how sorry they feel for me, but I'm not exaggerating when I reply that it has always been like this,",
      " since the very beginning. It comes with the territory. An essay must tell readers things they don't already know, and some  people dislike being told such things.[11] People put plenty of stuff on the internet in the 90s of course, but putting something online is not the same as publishing it online. Publishing online means you treat the online version as the (or at least a) primary version.[12] There is a general lesson here that our experience with Y Combinator also teaches: Customs continue to constrain you long after the restrictions that caused them have disappeared. Customary VC practice had once, like the customs about publishing essays,",
      " been based on real constraints. Startups had once been much more expensive to start, and proportionally rare. Now they could be cheap and common, but the VCs' customs still reflected the old world, just as customs about writing essays still reflected the constraints of the print era.Which in turn implies that people who are independent-minded (i.e. less influenced by custom) will have an advantage in fields affected by rapid change (where customs are more likely to be obsolete).Here's an interesting point, though: you can't always predict which fields will be affected by rapid change. Obviously software and venture capital will be, but who would have predicted that essay writing would be?[13]",
      " Y Combinator was not the original name. At first we were called Cambridge Seed. But we didn't want a regional name, in case someone copied us in Silicon Valley, so we renamed ourselves after one of the coolest tricks in the lambda calculus, the Y combinator.I picked orange as our color partly because it's the warmest, and partly because no VC used it. In 2005 all the VCs used staid colors like maroon, navy blue, and forest green, because they were trying to appeal to LPs, not founders. The YC logo itself is an inside joke: the Viaweb logo had been a white V on a red circle,",
      " so I made the YC logo a white Y on an orange square.[14] YC did become a fund for a couple years starting in 2009, because it was getting so big I could no longer afford to fund it personally. But after Heroku got bought we had enough money to go back to being self-funded.[15] I've never liked the term \"deal flow,\" because it implies that the number of new startups at any given time is fixed. This is not only false, but it's the purpose of YC to falsify it, by causing startups to be founded that would not otherwise have existed.[16]",
      " She reports that they were all different shapes and sizes, because there was a run on air conditioners and she had to get whatever she could, but that they were all heavier than she could carry now.[17] Another problem with HN was a bizarre edge case that occurs when you both write essays and run a forum. When you run a forum, you're assumed to see if not every conversation, at least every conversation involving you. And when you write essays, people post highly imaginative misinterpretations of them on forums. Individually these two phenomena are tedious but bearable, but the combination is disastrous. You actually have to respond to the misinterpretations,",
      " because the assumption that you're present in the conversation means that not responding to any sufficiently upvoted misinterpretation reads as a tacit admission that it's correct. But that in turn encourages more; anyone who wants to pick a fight with you senses that now is their chance.[18] The worst thing about leaving YC was not working with Jessica anymore. We'd been working on YC almost the whole time we'd known each other, and we'd neither tried nor wanted to separate it from our personal lives, so leaving was like pulling up a deeply rooted tree.[19] One way to get more precise about the concept of invented vs discovered is to talk about space aliens.",
      " Any sufficiently advanced alien civilization would certainly know about the Pythagorean theorem, for example. I believe, though with less certainty, that they would also know about the Lisp in McCarthy's 1960 paper.But if so there's no reason to suppose that this is the limit of the language that might be known to them. Presumably aliens need numbers and errors and I/O too. So it seems likely there exists at least one path out of McCarthy's Lisp along which discoveredness is preserved.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, John Collison, Patrick Collison, Daniel Gackle, Ralph Hazell, Jessica Livingston, Robert Morris, and Harj Taggar for reading drafts of this.January 2003(This article is derived from a keynote talk at the fall 2002 meeting of NEPLS.)Visitors to this country are often surprised to find that Americans like to begin a conversation by asking \"what do you do?\" I've never liked this question.",
      "  I've rarely had a neat answer to it.  But I think I have finally solved the problem. Now, when someone asks me what I do, I look them straight in the eye and say \"I'm designing a  new dialect of Lisp.\"    I recommend this answer to anyone who doesn't like being asked what they do.  The conversation will turn immediately to other topics.I don't consider myself to be doing research on programming languages. I'm just designing one, in the same way that someone might design a building or a chair or a new typeface. I'm not trying to discover anything new.  I just want to make a language that will be good to program in.",
      "  In some ways, this assumption makes life a lot easier.The difference between design and research seems to be a question of new versus good.  Design doesn't have to be new, but it has to   be good.  Research doesn't have to be good, but it has to be new. I think these two paths converge at the top: the best design surpasses its predecessors by using new ideas, and the best research solves problems that are not only new, but actually worth solving. So ultimately we're aiming for the same destination, just approaching it from different directions.What I'm going to talk about today is what your target looks like from the back.",
      "  What do you do differently when you treat programming languages as a design problem instead of a research topic?The biggest difference is that you focus more on the user. Design begins by asking, who is this for and what do they need from it?  A good architect, for example, does not begin by creating a design that he then imposes on the users, but by studying the intended users and figuring out what they need.Notice I said \"what they need,\" not \"what they want.\"  I don't mean to give the impression that working as a designer means working as  a sort of short-order cook, making whatever the client tells you to.",
      "  This varies from field to field in the arts, but I don't think there is any field in which the best work is done by the people who just make exactly what the customers tell them to.The customer is always right in the sense that the measure of good design is how well it works for the user.  If you make a novel that bores everyone, or a chair that's horribly uncomfortable to sit in, then you've done a bad job, period.  It's no defense to say that the novel or the chair   is designed according to the most advanced theoretical principles.And yet, making what works for the user doesn't mean simply making what the user tells you to.",
      "  Users don't know what all the choices are, and are often mistaken about what they really want.The answer to the paradox, I think, is that you have to design for the user, but you have to design what the user needs, not simply   what he says he wants. It's much like being a doctor.  You can't just treat a patient's symptoms.  When a patient tells you his symptoms, you have to figure out what's actually wrong with him, and treat that.This focus on the user is a kind of axiom from which most of the practice of good design can be derived, and around which most design issues center.If good design must do what the user needs,",
      " who is the user?  When I say that design must be for users, I don't mean to imply that good  design aims at some kind of   lowest common denominator.  You can pick any group of users you want.  If you're designing a tool, for example, you can design it for anyone from beginners to experts, and what's good design for one group might be bad for another.  The point is, you have to pick some group of users.  I don't think you can even talk about good or bad design except with reference to some intended user.You're most likely to get good design if the intended users include the designer himself.",
      "  When you design something for a group that doesn't include you, it tends to be for people you consider to be less sophisticated than you, not more sophisticated.That's a problem, because looking down on the user \nThe little penguin counted 43 \u2605\n, however benevolently, seems inevitably to corrupt the designer. I suspect that very few housing projects in the US were designed by architects who expected to live in them.   You can see the same thing in programming languages.  C, Lisp, and Smalltalk were created for their own designers to use.  Cobol, Ada, and Java, were created    for other people to use.If you think you're designing something for idiots,",
      " the odds are that you're not designing something good, even for idiots. Even if you're designing something for the most sophisticated users, though, you're still designing for humans.  It's different  in research.  In math you don't choose abstractions because they're easy for humans to understand; you choose whichever make the proof shorter.  I think this is true for the sciences generally. Scientific ideas are not meant to be ergonomic.Over in the arts, things are very different.  Design is all about people.  The human body is a strange thing, but when you're designing a chair, that's what you're designing for,",
      " and there's no way around it. All the arts have to pander to the interests and limitations of humans.   In painting, for example, all other things being equal a painting with people in it will be more interesting than one without.  It is not merely an accident of history that the great paintings of the Renaissance are all full of people. If they hadn't been, painting as a medium wouldn't have the prestige that it does.Like it or not, programming languages are also for people, and I suspect the human brain is just as lumpy and idiosyncratic as the human body.  Some ideas are easy for people to grasp and some aren't.",
      "  For example, we seem to have a very limited capacity for dealing with detail.  It's this fact that makes programing languages a good idea in the first place; if we could handle the detail, we could just program in machine language.Remember, too, that languages are not primarily a form for finished programs, but something that programs have to be developed in.  Anyone in the arts could tell you that you might want different mediums for the two situations.  Marble, for example, is a nice, durable medium for finished ideas, but a hopelessly inflexible one for developing new ideas.A program, like a proof, is a pruned version of a tree that in the past has had false starts branching off all over it.",
      "  So the test of a language is not simply how clean the finished program looks in it, but how clean the path to the finished program was. A design choice that gives you elegant finished programs may not give you an elegant design process.  For example,  I've written a few macro-defining macros full of nested backquotes that look now like little gems, but writing them took hours of the ugliest trial and error, and frankly, I'm still not entirely sure they're correct.We often act as if the test of a language were how good finished programs look in it. It seems so convincing when you see the same program written in two languages,",
      " and one version is much shorter. When you approach the problem from the direction of the arts, you're less likely to depend on this sort of test.  You don't want to end up with a programming language like marble.For example, it is a huge win in developing software to have an interactive toplevel, what in Lisp is called a read-eval-print loop.  And when you have one this has real effects on the design of the language.  It would not work well for a language where you have to declare variables before using them, for example.  When you're just typing expressions into the toplevel, you want to be  able to set x to some value and then start doing things to x.",
      "  You don't want to have to declare the type of x first.  You may dispute either of the premises, but if a language has to have a toplevel to be convenient, and mandatory type declarations are incompatible with a toplevel, then no language that makes type declarations   mandatory could be convenient to program in.In practice, to get good design you have to get close, and stay close, to your users.  You have to calibrate your ideas on actual users constantly, especially in the beginning.  One of the reasons Jane Austen's novels are so good is that she read them out loud to her family.  That's why she never sinks into self-indulgently arty descriptions of landscapes,",
      " or pretentious philosophizing.  (The philosophy's there, but it's woven into the story instead of being pasted onto it like a label.) If you open an average \"literary\" novel and imagine reading it out loud to your friends as something you'd written, you'll feel all too keenly what an imposition that kind of thing is upon the reader.In the software world, this idea is known as Worse is Better. Actually, there are several ideas mixed together in the concept of Worse is Better, which is why people are still arguing about whether worse is actually better or not.  But one of the main ideas in that mix is that if you're building something new,",
      " you should get a prototype in front of users as soon as possible.The alternative approach might be called the Hail Mary strategy. Instead of getting a prototype out quickly and gradually refining it, you try to create the complete, finished, product in one long touchdown pass.  As far as I know, this is a recipe for disaster.  Countless startups destroyed themselves this way during the Internet bubble.  I've never heard of a case where it worked.What people outside the software world may not realize is that Worse is Better is found throughout the arts. In drawing, for example, the idea was discovered during the Renaissance.  Now almost every drawing teacher will tell you that the right way to get an accurate drawing is not to work your way slowly around the contour of an object,",
      " because errors will accumulate and you'll find at the end that the lines don't meet. Instead you should draw a few quick lines in roughly the right place, and then gradually refine this initial sketch.In most fields, prototypes have traditionally been made out of different materials. Typefaces to be cut in metal were initially designed   with a brush on paper.  Statues to be cast in bronze    were modelled in wax.  Patterns to be embroidered on tapestries were drawn on paper with ink wash.  Buildings to be constructed from stone were tested on a smaller scale in wood.What made oil paint so exciting, when it first became popular in the fifteenth century,",
      " was that you could actually make the finished work from the prototype. You could make a preliminary drawing if you wanted to, but you weren't held to it; you could work out all the details, and even make major changes, as you finished the painting.You can do this in software too.  A prototype doesn't have to be just a model; you can refine it into the finished product. I think you should always do this when you can.  It lets you take advantage of new insights you have along the way.  But perhaps even more important, it's good for morale.Morale is key in design.  I'm surprised people don't talk more about it.",
      "  One of my first drawing teachers told me: if you're bored when you're drawing something, the drawing will look boring. For example, suppose you have to draw a building, and you decide to draw each brick individually.  You can do this if you want, but if you get bored halfway through and start making the bricks mechanically instead of observing each one,    the drawing will look worse than if you had merely suggested the bricks.Building something by gradually refining a prototype is good for morale because it keeps you engaged.  In software, my   rule is: always have working code.  If you're writing something that you'll be able to test in an hour,",
      " then you have the prospect of an immediate reward to motivate you. The same is true in the arts, and particularly in oil painting. Most painters start with a blurry sketch and gradually refine it. If you work this way, then in principle you never have to end the day with something that actually looks unfinished.  Indeed, there is even a saying among painters: \"A painting is never finished, you just stop working on it.\"  This idea will be familiar to anyone who has worked on software.Morale is another reason that it's hard to design something for an unsophisticated user.   It's hard to stay interested in something you don't like yourself.",
      "  To make something   good, you have to be thinking, \"wow, this is really great,\" not \"what a piece of shit; those fools will love it.\"Design means making things for humans.  But it's not just the user who's human.  The designer is human too.Notice all this time I've been talking about \"the designer.\" Design usually has to be under the control of a single person to be any good.   And yet it seems to be possible for several people to collaborate on a research project.  This seems to me one of the most interesting differences between research and design.There have been famous instances of collaboration in the arts,",
      " but most of them seem to have been cases of molecular bonding rather than nuclear fusion.  In an opera it's common for one person to write the libretto and another to write the music.   And during the Renaissance,  journeymen from northern Europe were often employed to do the landscapes in the backgrounds of Italian paintings.  But these aren't true collaborations. They're more like examples of Robert Frost's \"good fences make good neighbors.\"  You can stick instances of good design together, but within each individual project, one person has to be in control.I'm not saying that good design requires that one person think of everything.",
      "  There's nothing more valuable than the advice of someone whose judgement you trust.  But after the talking is done, the decision about what to do has to rest with one person.Why is it that research can be done by collaborators and   design can't?  This is an interesting question.  I don't  know the answer.  Perhaps, if design and research converge, the best research is also good design, and in fact can't be done by collaborators. A lot of the most famous scientists seem to have worked alone. But I don't know enough to say whether there is a pattern here.  It could be simply that many famous scientists worked when collaboration was less common.Whatever the story is in the sciences,",
      " true collaboration seems to be vanishingly rare in the arts.  Design by committee is a synonym for bad design.  Why is that so?  Is there some way to beat this limitation?I'm inclined to think there isn't-- that good design requires a dictator.  One reason is that good design has to    be all of a piece.  Design is not just for humans, but for individual humans.  If a design represents an idea that   fits in one person's head, then the idea will fit in the user's head too.Related:January 2012A few hours before the Yahoo acquisition was announced in June 1998 I took a snapshot of Viaweb's site.",
      "  I thought it might be interesting to look at one day.The first thing one notices is is how tiny the pages are.  Screens were a lot smaller in 1998.  If I remember correctly, our frontpage used to just fit in the size window people typically used then.Browsers then (IE 6 was still 3 years in the future) had few fonts and they weren't antialiased.  If you wanted to make pages that looked good, you had to render display text as images.You may notice a certain similarity between the Viaweb and Y Combinator logos.  We did that as an inside joke when we started YC.",
      "  Considering how basic a red circle is, it seemed surprising to me when we started Viaweb how few other companies used one as their logo.  A bit later I realized why.On the Company page you'll notice a mysterious individual called John McArtyem. Robert Morris (aka Rtm) was so publicity averse after the  Worm that he didn't want his name on the site.  I managed to get him to agree to a compromise: we could use his bio but not his name.  He has since relaxed a bit on that point.Trevor graduated at about the same time the acquisition closed, so in the course of 4 days he went from impecunious grad student to millionaire PhD.",
      "  The culmination of my career as a writer of press releases was one celebrating his graduation, illustrated with a drawing I did of him during a meeting.(Trevor also appears as Trevino Bagwell in our directory of web designers merchants could hire to build stores for them.  We inserted him as a ringer in case some competitor tried to spam our web designers.   We assumed his logo would deter any actual customers, but it did not.)Back in the 90s, to get users you had to get mentioned in magazines and newspapers.  There were not the same ways to get found online that there are today.  So we used to pay a PR firm $16,",
      "000 a month to get us mentioned in the press.  Fortunately reporters liked us.In our advice about getting traffic from search engines (I don't think the term SEO had been coined yet), we say there are only 7 that matter: Yahoo, AltaVista, Excite, WebCrawler, InfoSeek, Lycos, and HotBot.  Notice anything missing?  Google was incorporated that September.We supported online transactions via a company called  Cybercash, since if we lacked that feature we'd have gotten beaten up in product comparisons.  But Cybercash was so bad and most stores' order volumes were so low that it was better if merchants processed orders like phone orders.",
      "  We had a page in our site trying to talk merchants out of doing real time authorizations.The whole site was organized like a funnel, directing people to the test drive. It was a novel thing to be able to try out software online.  We put cgi-bin in our dynamic urls to fool competitors about how our software worked.We had some well known users.  Needless to say, Frederick's of Hollywood got the most traffic.  We charged a flat fee of $300/month for big stores, so it was a little alarming to have users who got lots of traffic. I once calculated how much Frederick's was costing us in bandwidth,",
      " and it was about $300/month.Since we hosted all the stores, which together were getting just over 10 million page views per month in June 1998, we consumed what at the time seemed a lot of bandwidth.  We had 2 T1s (3 Mb/sec) coming into our offices.  In those days there was no AWS.  Even colocating servers seemed too risky, considering how often things went wrong with them.  So we had our servers in our offices.  Or more precisely, in Trevor's office.  In return for the unique privilege of sharing his office with no other humans, he had to share it with 6 shrieking tower servers.",
      "  His office was nicknamed the Hot Tub on account of the heat they generated.  Most days his stack of window air conditioners could keep up.For describing pages, we had a template language called RTML, which supposedly stood for something, but which in fact I named after Rtm.  RTML was Common Lisp augmented by some macros and libraries, and concealed under a structure editor that made it look like it had syntax.Since we did continuous releases, our software didn't actually have versions.  But in those days the trade press expected versions, so we made them up.  If we wanted to get lots of attention, we made the version number an integer.",
      "  That \"version 4.0\" icon was generated by our own button generator, incidentally.  The whole Viaweb site was made with our software, even though it wasn't an online store, because we wanted to experience what our users did.At the end of 1997, we released a general purpose shopping search engine called Shopfind.  It was pretty advanced for the time.  It had a programmable crawler that could crawl most of the different stores online and pick out the products.May 2021Noora Health, a nonprofit I've  supported for years, just launched a new NFT. It has a dramatic name,",
      " Save Thousands of Lives, because that's what the proceeds will do.Noora has been saving lives for 7 years. They run programs in hospitals in South Asia to teach new mothers how to take care of their babies once they get home \nThe little penguin counted 68 \u2605\n. They're in 165 hospitals now. And because they know the numbers before and after they start at a new hospital, they can measure the impact they have. It is massive. For every 1000 live births, they save 9 babies.This number comes from a study of 133,733 families at 28 different hospitals that Noora conducted in collaboration with the Better Birth team at Ariadne Labs,",
      " a joint center for health systems innovation at Brigham and Women\u0092s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.Noora is so effective that even if you measure their costs in the most conservative way, by dividing their entire budget by the number of lives saved, the cost of saving a life is the lowest I've seen. $1,235.For this NFT, they're going to issue a public report tracking how this specific tranche of money is spent, and estimating the number of lives saved as a result.NFTs are a new territory, and this way of using them is especially new, but I'm excited about its potential.",
      " And I'm excited to see what happens with this particular auction, because unlike an NFT representing something that has already happened, this NFT gets better as the price gets higher.The reserve price was about $2.5 million, because that's what it takes for the name to be accurate: that's what it costs to save 2000 lives. But the higher the price of this NFT goes, the more lives will be saved. What a sentence to be able to write.October 2015This will come as a surprise to a lot of people, but in some cases it's possible to detect bias in a selection process without knowing anything about the applicant pool.",
      "  Which is exciting because among other things it means third parties can use this technique to detect bias whether those doing the selecting want them to or not.You can use this technique whenever (a) you have at least a random sample of the applicants that were selected, (b) their subsequent performance is measured, and (c) the groups of applicants you're comparing have roughly equal distribution of ability.How does it work?  Think about what it means to be biased.  What it means for a selection process to be biased against applicants of type x is that it's harder for them to make it through.  Which means applicants of type x have to be better to get selected than applicants not of type x.",
      " [1] Which means applicants of type x who do make it through the selection process will outperform other successful applicants.  And if the performance of all the successful applicants is measured, you'll know if they do.Of course, the test you use to measure performance must be a valid one.  And in particular it must not be invalidated by the bias you're trying to measure. But there are some domains where performance can be measured, and in those detecting bias is straightforward. Want to know if the selection process was biased against some type of applicant?  Check whether they outperform the others.  This is not just a heuristic for detecting bias.",
      "  It's what bias means.For example, many suspect that venture capital firms are biased against female founders. This would be easy to detect: among their portfolio companies, do startups with female founders outperform those without?  A couple months ago, one VC firm (almost certainly unintentionally) published a study showing bias of this type. First Round Capital found that among its portfolio companies, startups with female founders outperformed those without by 63%.  [2]The reason I began by saying that this technique would come as a surprise to many people is that we so rarely see analyses of this type.  I'm sure it will come as a surprise to First Round that they performed one.",
      " I doubt anyone there realized that by limiting their sample to their own portfolio, they were producing a study not of startup trends but of their own biases when selecting companies.I predict we'll see this technique used more in the future.  The information needed to conduct such studies is increasingly available. Data about who applies for things is usually closely guarded by the organizations selecting them, but nowadays data about who gets selected is often publicly available to anyone who takes the trouble to aggregate it. Notes[1] This technique wouldn't work if the selection process looked for different things from different types of applicants\u2014for example, if an employer hired men based on their ability but women based on their appearance.[2]",
      " As Paul Buchheit points out, First Round excluded their most  successful investment, Uber, from the study.  And while it  makes sense to exclude outliers from some types of studies,  studies of returns from startup investing, which is all about  hitting outliers, are not one of them. Thanks to Sam Altman, Jessica Livingston, and Geoff Ralston for reading drafts of this.  April 2009I usually avoid politics, but since we now seem to have an administration that's open to suggestions, I'm going to risk making one.  The single biggest thing the government could do to increase the number of startups in this country is a policy that would cost nothing:",
      " establish a new class of visa for startup founders.The biggest constraint on the number of new startups that get created in the US is not tax policy or employment law or even Sarbanes-Oxley.  It's that we won't let the people who want to start them into the country.Letting just 10,000 startup founders into the country each year could have a visible effect on the economy.  If we assume 4 people per startup, which is probably an overestimate, that's 2500 new companies.  Each year.  They wouldn't all grow as big as Google, but out of 2500 some would come close.By definition these 10,",
      "000 founders wouldn't be taking jobs from Americans: it could be part of the terms of the visa that they couldn't work for existing companies, only new ones they'd founded.  In fact they'd cause there to be  more jobs for Americans, because the companies they started would hire more employees as they grew.The tricky part might seem to be how one defined a startup. But that could be solved quite easily: let the market decide.  Startup investors work hard to find the best startups.  The government could not do better than to piggyback on their expertise, and use investment by recognized startup investors as the test of whether a company was a real startup.How would the government decide who's a startup investor?",
      "  The same way they decide what counts as a university for student visas. We'll establish our own accreditation procedure. We know who one another are.10,000 people is a drop in the bucket by immigration standards, but would represent a huge increase in the pool of startup founders.  I think this would have such a visible effect on the economy that it would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous.  The only way to know for sure would be to try it, and that would cost practically nothing. Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Paul Buchheit, Jeff Clavier, David Hornik, Jessica Livingston, Greg Mcadoo,",
      " Aydin Senkut, and Fred Wilson for reading drafts of this.Related:  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     March 2008, rev. June 2008Technology tends to separate normal from natural.  Our bodies weren't designed to eat the foods that people in rich countries eat, or to get so little exercise.   There may be a similar problem with the way we work:  a normal job may be as bad for us intellectually as white flour or sugar is for us physically.I began to suspect this after spending several years working  with startup founders.  I've now worked with over 200 of them,",
      " and I've noticed a definite difference between programmers working on their own startups and those working for large organizations. I wouldn't say founders seem happier, necessarily; starting a startup can be very stressful. Maybe the best way to put it is to say that they're happier in the sense that your body is happier during a long run than sitting on a sofa eating doughnuts.Though they're statistically abnormal, startup founders seem to be working in a way that's more natural for humans.I was in Africa last year and saw a lot of animals in the wild that I'd only seen in zoos before. It was remarkable how different they seemed. Particularly lions.",
      " Lions in the wild seem about ten times more alive. They're like different animals. I suspect that working for oneself feels better to humans in much the same way that living in the wild must feel better to a wide-ranging predator like a lion. Life in a zoo is easier, but it isn't the life they were designed for. TreesWhat's so unnatural about working for a big company?  The root of the problem is that humans weren't meant to work in such large groups.Another thing you notice when you see animals in the wild is that each species thrives in groups of a certain size.  A herd of impalas might have 100 adults;",
      " baboons maybe 20; lions rarely 10.  Humans also seem designed to work in groups, and what I've read about hunter-gatherers accords with research on organizations and my own experience to suggest roughly what the ideal size is: groups of 8 work well; by 20 they're getting hard to manage; and a group of 50 is really unwieldy. [1] Whatever the upper limit is, we are clearly not meant to work in groups of several hundred.  And yet\u2014for reasons having more to do with technology than human nature\u2014a great many people work for companies with hundreds or thousands of employees.Companies know groups that large wouldn't work,",
      " so they divide themselves into units small enough to work together.  But to coordinate these they have to introduce something new: bosses.These smaller groups are always arranged in a tree structure.  Your boss is the point where your group attaches to the tree.  But when you use this trick for dividing a large group into smaller ones, something strange happens that I've never heard anyone mention explicitly.  In the group one level up from yours, your boss represents your entire group.  A group of 10 managers is not merely a group of 10 people working together in the usual way.  It's really a group of groups.  Which means for a group of 10 managers to work together as if they were simply a group of 10 individuals,",
      " the group working for each manager would have to work as if they were a single person\u2014the workers and manager would each share only one person's worth of freedom between them.In practice a group of people are never able to act as if they were one person.  But in a large organization divided into groups in this way, the pressure is always in that direction.  Each group tries its best to work as if it were the small group of individuals that humans were designed to work in.  That was the point of creating it.  And when you propagate that constraint, the result is that each person gets freedom of action in inverse proportion to the size of the entire tree.",
      " [2]Anyone who's worked for a large organization has felt this.  You can feel the difference between working for a company with 100 employees and one with 10,000, even if your group has only 10 people. Corn SyrupA group of 10 people within a large organization is a kind of fake tribe.  The number of people you interact with is about right.  But something is missing: individual initiative.  Tribes of hunter-gatherers have much more freedom.  The leaders have a little more power than other members of the tribe, but they don't generally tell them what to do and when the way a boss can.It's not your boss's fault.",
      "  The real problem is that in the group above you in the hierarchy, your entire group is one virtual person. Your boss is just the way that constraint is imparted to you.So working in a group of 10 people within a large organization feels both right and wrong at the same time.   On the surface it feels like the kind of group you're meant to work in, but something major is missing.  A job at a big company is like high fructose corn syrup: it has some of the qualities of things you're meant to like, but is disastrously lacking in others.Indeed, food is an excellent metaphor to explain what's wrong with the usual sort of job.For example,",
      " working for a big company is the default thing to do, at least for programmers.  How bad could it be?  Well, food shows that pretty clearly.  If you were dropped at a random point in America today, nearly all the food around you would be bad for you. Humans were not designed to eat white flour, refined sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and hydrogenated vegetable oil.  And yet if you analyzed the contents of the average grocery store you'd probably find these four ingredients accounted for most of the calories. \"Normal\" food is terribly bad for you.  The only people who eat what humans were actually designed to eat are a few Birkenstock-wearing weirdos in Berkeley.If \"normal\"",
      " food is so bad for us, why is it so common?  There are two main reasons. One is that it has more immediate appeal.  You may feel lousy an hour after eating that pizza, but eating the first couple bites feels great.  The other is economies of scale. Producing junk food scales; producing fresh vegetables doesn't. Which means (a) junk food can be very cheap, and (b) it's worth spending a lot to market it.If people have to choose between something that's cheap, heavily marketed, and appealing in the short term, and something that's expensive, obscure, and appealing in the long term,",
      " which do you think most will choose?It's the same with work.  The average MIT graduate wants to work at Google or Microsoft, because it's a recognized brand, it's safe, and they'll get paid a good salary right away.  It's the job equivalent of the pizza they had for lunch.  The drawbacks will only become apparent later, and then only in a vague sense of malaise.And founders and early employees of startups, meanwhile, are like the Birkenstock-wearing weirdos of Berkeley:  though a tiny minority of the population, they're the ones living as humans are meant to. In an artificial world,",
      " only extremists live naturally. ProgrammersThe restrictiveness of big company jobs is particularly hard on programmers, because the essence of programming is to build new things.  Sales people make much the same pitches every day; support people answer much the same questions; but once you've written a piece of code you don't need to write it again.  So a programmer working as programmers are meant to is always making new things. And when you're part of an organization whose structure gives each person freedom in inverse proportion to the size of the tree, you're going to face resistance when you do something new.This seems an inevitable consequence of bigness.",
      "  It's true even in the smartest companies.  I was talking recently to a founder who considered starting a startup right out of college, but went to work for Google instead because he thought he'd learn more there. He didn't learn as much as he expected.  Programmers learn by doing, and most of the things he wanted to do, he couldn't\u2014sometimes because the company wouldn't let him, but often because the company's code wouldn't let him.  Between the drag of legacy code, the overhead of doing development in such a large organization, and the restrictions imposed by interfaces owned by other groups, he could only try a fraction of the things he would have liked to.",
      "  He said he has learned much more in his own startup, despite the fact that he has to do all the company's errands as well as programming, because at least when he's programming he can do whatever he wants.An obstacle downstream propagates upstream.  If you're not allowed to implement new ideas, you stop having them.  And vice versa: when you can do whatever you want, you have more ideas about what to do. So working for yourself makes your brain more powerful in the same way a low-restriction exhaust system makes an engine more powerful.Working for yourself doesn't have to mean starting a startup, of course.",
      "  But a programmer deciding between a regular job at a big company and their own startup is probably going to learn more doing the startup.You can adjust the amount of freedom you get by scaling the size of company you work for.  If you start the company, you'll have the most freedom.  If you become one of the first 10 employees you'll have almost as much freedom as the founders.  Even a company with 100 people will feel different from one with 1000.Working for a small company doesn't ensure freedom.  The tree structure of large organizations sets an upper bound on freedom, not a lower bound.  The head of a small company may still choose to be a tyrant.",
      "  The point is that a large organization is compelled by its structure to be one. ConsequencesThat has real consequences for both organizations and individuals. One is that companies will inevitably slow down as they grow larger, no matter how hard they try to keep their startup mojo.  It's a consequence of the tree structure that every large organization is forced to adopt.Or rather, a large organization could only avoid slowing down if they avoided tree structure.  And since human nature limits the size of group that can work together \nThe little penguin counted 109 \u2605\n, the only way I can imagine for larger groups to avoid tree structure would be to have no structure: to have each group actually be independent,",
      " and to work together the way components of a market economy do.That might be worth exploring.  I suspect there are already some highly partitionable businesses that lean this way.  But I don't know any technology companies that have done it.There is one thing companies can do short of structuring themselves as sponges:  they can stay small.  If I'm right, then it really pays to keep a company as small as it can be at every stage. Particularly a technology company.  Which means it's doubly important to hire the best people.  Mediocre hires hurt you twice: they get less done, but they also make you big,",
      " because you need more of them to solve a given problem.For individuals the upshot is the same: aim small.  It will always suck to work for large organizations, and the larger the organization, the more it will suck.In an essay I wrote a couple years ago  I advised graduating seniors to work for a couple years for another company before starting their own.  I'd modify that now.  Work for another company if you want to, but only for a small one, and if you want to start your own startup, go ahead.The reason I suggested college graduates not start startups immediately was that I felt most would fail.  And they will.",
      "  But ambitious programmers are better off doing their own thing and failing than going to work at a big company.  Certainly they'll learn more.  They might even be better off financially.  A lot of people in their early twenties get into debt, because their expenses grow even faster than the salary that seemed so high when they left school. At least if you start a startup and fail your net worth will be zero rather than negative.   [3]We've now funded so many different types of founders that we have enough data to see patterns, and there seems to be no benefit from working for a big company.  The people who've worked for a few years do seem better than the ones straight out of college,",
      " but only because they're that much older.The people who come to us from big companies often seem kind of conservative.  It's hard to say how much is because big companies made them that way, and how much is the natural conservatism that made them work for the big companies in the first place.  But certainly a large part of it is learned.  I know because I've seen it burn off.Having seen that happen so many times is one of the things that convinces me that working for oneself, or at least for a small group, is the natural way for programmers to live.  Founders arriving at Y Combinator often have the downtrodden air of refugees.",
      "  Three months later they're transformed: they have so much more  confidence that they seem as if they've grown several inches taller.  [4] Strange as this sounds, they seem both more worried and happier at the same time.  Which is exactly how I'd describe the way lions seem in the wild.Watching employees get transformed into founders makes it clear that the difference between the two is due mostly to environment\u2014and in particular that the environment in big companies is toxic to programmers.   In the first couple weeks of working on their own startup they seem to come to life, because finally they're working the way people are meant to.Notes[",
      "1] When I talk about humans being meant or designed to live a certain way, I mean by evolution.[2] It's not only the leaves who suffer.  The constraint propagates up as well as down.  So managers are constrained too; instead of just doing things, they have to act through subordinates.[3] Do not finance your startup with credit cards.  Financing a startup with debt is usually a stupid move, and credit card debt stupidest of all.  Credit card debt is a bad idea, period.  It is a trap set by evil companies for the desperate and the foolish.[4] The founders we fund used to be younger (initially we encouraged undergrads to apply), and the first couple times I saw this I used to wonder if they were actually getting physically taller.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell,",
      " Ross Boucher, Aaron Iba, Abby Kirigin, Ivan Kirigin, Jessica Livingston, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.December 2014If the world were static, we could have monotonically increasing confidence in our beliefs.  The more (and more varied) experience a belief survived, the less likely it would be false.  Most people implicitly believe something like this about their opinions.  And they're justified in doing so with opinions about things that don't change much, like human nature.  But you can't trust your opinions in the same way about things that change, which could include practically everything else.When experts are wrong,",
      " it's often because they're experts on an earlier version of the world.Is it possible to avoid that?  Can you protect yourself against obsolete beliefs?  To some extent, yes. I spent almost a decade investing in early stage startups, and curiously enough protecting yourself against obsolete beliefs is exactly what you have to do to succeed as a startup investor.  Most really good startup ideas look like bad ideas at first, and many of those look bad specifically because some change in the world just switched them from bad to good.  I spent a lot of time learning to recognize such ideas, and the techniques I used may be applicable to ideas in general.The first step is to have an explicit belief in change.",
      "  People who fall victim to a monotonically increasing confidence in their opinions are implicitly concluding the world is static.  If you consciously remind yourself it isn't, you start to look for change.Where should one look for it?  Beyond the moderately useful generalization that human nature doesn't change much, the unfortunate fact is that change is hard to predict.  This is largely a tautology but worth remembering all the same: change that matters usually comes from an unforeseen quarter.So I don't even try to predict it.  When I get asked in interviews to predict the future, I always have to struggle to come up with something plausible-sounding on the fly,",
      " like a student who hasn't prepared for an exam. [1] But it's not out of laziness that I haven't prepared.  It seems to me that beliefs about the future are so rarely correct that they usually aren't worth the extra rigidity they impose, and that the best strategy is simply to be aggressively open-minded.  Instead of trying to point yourself in the right direction, admit you have no idea what the right direction is, and try instead to be super sensitive to the winds of change.It's ok to have working hypotheses, even though they may constrain you a bit, because they also motivate you.  It's exciting to chase things and exciting to try to guess answers.",
      "  But you have to be disciplined about not letting your hypotheses harden into anything more. [2]I believe this passive m.o. works not just for evaluating new ideas but also for having them.  The way to come up with new ideas is not to try explicitly to, but to try to solve problems and simply not discount weird hunches you have in the process.The winds of change originate in the unconscious minds of domain experts.  If you're sufficiently expert in a field, any weird idea or apparently irrelevant question that occurs to you is ipso facto worth exploring.  [3]  Within Y Combinator, when an idea is described as crazy,",
      " it's a compliment\u2014in fact, on average probably a higher compliment than when an idea is described as good.Startup investors have extraordinary incentives for correcting obsolete beliefs.  If they can realize before other investors that some apparently unpromising startup isn't, they can make a huge amount of money.  But the incentives are more than just financial. Investors' opinions are explicitly tested: startups come to them and they have to say yes or no, and then, fairly quickly, they learn whether they guessed right.  The investors who say no to a Google (and there were several) will remember it for the rest of their lives.Anyone who must in some sense bet on ideas rather than merely commenting on them has similar incentives.",
      "  Which means anyone who wants such incentives can have them, by turning their comments into bets: if you write about a topic in some fairly durable and public form, you'll find you worry much more about getting things right than most people would in a casual conversation. [4]Another trick I've found to protect myself against obsolete beliefs is to focus initially on people rather than ideas. Though the nature of future discoveries is hard to predict, I've found I can predict quite well what sort of people will make them.  Good new ideas come from earnest, energetic, independent-minded people.Betting on people over ideas saved me countless times as an investor.",
      " We thought Airbnb was a bad idea, for example. But we could tell the founders were earnest, energetic, and independent-minded. (Indeed, almost pathologically so.)  So we suspended disbelief and funded them.This too seems a technique that should be generally applicable. Surround yourself with the sort of people new ideas come from.  If you want to notice quickly when your beliefs become obsolete, you can't do better than to be friends with the people whose discoveries will make them so.It's hard enough already not to become the prisoner of your own expertise, but it will only get harder, because change is accelerating. That's not a recent trend;",
      " change has been accelerating since the paleolithic era.  Ideas beget ideas.  I don't expect that to change. But I could be wrong. Notes[1] My usual trick is to talk about aspects of the present that most people haven't noticed yet.[2] Especially if they become well enough known that people start to identify them with you.  You have to be extra skeptical about things you want to believe, and once a hypothesis starts to be identified with you, it will almost certainly start to be in that category.[3] In practice \"sufficiently expert\" doesn't require one to be recognized as an expert\u2014which is a trailing indicator in any case.",
      "  In many fields a year of focused work plus caring a lot would be enough.[4] Though they are public and persist indefinitely, comments on e.g. forums and places like Twitter seem empirically to work like casual conversation.  The threshold may be whether what you write has a title. Thanks to Sam Altman, Patrick Collison, and Robert Morris for reading drafts of this.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.     November 2005Does \"Web 2.0\" mean anything?  Till recently I thought it didn't, but the truth turns out to be more complicated.",
      "  Originally, yes, it was meaningless.  Now it seems to have acquired a meaning.  And yet those who dislike the term are probably right, because if it means what I think it does, we don't need it.I first heard the phrase \"Web 2.0\" in the name of the Web 2.0 conference in 2004.  At the time it was supposed to mean using \"the web as a platform,\" which I took to refer to web-based applications. [1]So I was surprised at a conference this summer when Tim O'Reilly led a session intended to figure out a definition of \"Web 2.",
      "0.\" Didn't it already mean using the web as a platform?  And if it didn't already mean something, why did we need the phrase at all?OriginsTim says the phrase \"Web 2.0\" first arose in \"a brainstorming session between O'Reilly and Medialive International.\" What is Medialive International? \"Producers of technology tradeshows and conferences,\" according to their site.  So presumably that's what this brainstorming session was about.  O'Reilly wanted to organize a conference about the web, and they were wondering what to call it.I don't think there was any deliberate plan to suggest there was a new version of the web.",
      "  They just wanted to make the point that the web mattered again.  It was a kind of semantic deficit spending: they knew new things were coming, and the \"2.0\" referred to whatever those might turn out to be.And they were right.  New things were coming.  But the new version number led to some awkwardness in the short term.  In the process of developing the pitch for the first conference, someone must have decided they'd better take a stab at explaining what that \"2.0\" referred to.  Whatever it meant, \"the web as a platform\" was at least not too constricting.The story about \"Web 2.",
      "0\" meaning the web as a platform didn't live much past the first conference.  By the second conference, what \"Web 2.0\" seemed to mean was something about democracy.  At least, it did when people wrote about it online.  The conference itself didn't seem very grassroots.  It cost $2800, so the only people who could afford to go were VCs and people from big companies.And yet, oddly enough, Ryan Singel's article about the conference in Wired News spoke of \"throngs of geeks.\"  When a friend of mine asked Ryan about this, it was news to him.",
      "  He said he'd originally written something like \"throngs of VCs and biz dev guys\" but had later shortened it just to \"throngs,\" and that this must have in turn been expanded by the editors into \"throngs of geeks.\"  After all, a Web 2.0 conference would presumably be full of geeks, right?Well, no.  There were about 7.  Even Tim O'Reilly was wearing a    suit, a sight so alien I couldn't parse it at first.  I saw him walk by and said to one of the O'Reilly people \"that guy looks just like Tim.\"\"Oh,",
      " that's Tim.  He bought a suit.\" I ran after him, and sure enough, it was.  He explained that he'd just bought it in Thailand.The 2005 Web 2.0 conference reminded me of Internet trade shows during the Bubble, full of prowling VCs looking for the next hot startup.  There was that same odd atmosphere created by a large   number of people determined not to miss out.  Miss out on what? They didn't know.  Whatever was going to happen\u2014whatever Web 2.0 turned out to be.I wouldn't quite call it \"Bubble 2.0\" just because VCs are eager to invest again.",
      "  The Internet is a genuinely big deal.  The bust was as much an overreaction as the boom.  It's to be expected that once we started to pull out of the bust, there would be a lot of growth in this area, just as there was in the industries that spiked the sharpest before the Depression.The reason this won't turn into a second Bubble is that the IPO market is gone.  Venture investors are driven by exit strategies.  The reason they were funding all   those laughable startups during the late 90s was that they hoped to sell them to gullible retail investors; they hoped to be laughing all the way to the bank.",
      "  Now that route is closed.  Now the default exit strategy is to get bought, and acquirers are less prone to irrational exuberance than IPO investors.  The closest you'll get  to Bubble valuations is Rupert Murdoch paying $580 million for    Myspace.  That's only off by a factor of 10 or so.1. AjaxDoes \"Web 2.0\" mean anything more than the name of a conference yet?  I don't like to admit it, but it's starting to.  When people say \"Web 2.0\" now, I have some idea what they mean.",
      "  And the fact that I both despise the phrase and understand it is the surest proof that it has started to mean something.One ingredient of its meaning is certainly Ajax, which I can still only just bear to use without scare quotes.  Basically, what \"Ajax\" means is \"Javascript now works. \nThe little penguin counted 55 \u2605\n\"  And that in turn means that web-based applications can now be made to work much more like desktop ones.As you read this, a whole new generation of software is being written to take advantage of Ajax.  There hasn't been such a wave of new applications since microcomputers first appeared.  Even Microsoft sees it, but it's too late for them to do anything more than leak \"internal\"",
      "   documents designed to give the impression they're on top of this new trend.In fact the new generation of software is being written way too fast for Microsoft even to channel it, let alone write their own in house.  Their only hope now is to buy all the best Ajax startups before Google does.  And even that's going to be hard, because Google has as big a head start in buying microstartups as it did in search a few years ago.  After all, Google Maps, the canonical Ajax application, was the result of a startup they bought.So ironically the original description of the Web 2.0 conference turned out to be partially right:",
      " web-based applications are a big component of Web 2.0.  But I'm convinced they got this right by  accident.  The Ajax boom didn't start till early 2005, when Google Maps appeared and the term \"Ajax\" was coined.2. DemocracyThe second big element of Web 2.0 is democracy.  We now have several examples to prove that amateurs can    surpass professionals, when they have the right kind of system to  channel their efforts.  Wikipedia may be the most famous.  Experts have given Wikipedia middling reviews, but they miss the critical point: it's good enough.  And    it's free,",
      " which means people actually read it.  On the web, articles you have to pay for might as well not exist.  Even if you were     willing to pay to read them yourself, you can't link to them.     They're not part of the conversation.Another place democracy seems to win is in deciding what counts as news.  I never look at any news site now except Reddit. [2]  I know if something major happens, or someone writes a particularly interesting article, it    will show up there.  Why bother checking the front page of any specific paper or magazine?  Reddit's like an RSS feed for the whole web,",
      " with a filter for quality.  Similar sites include Digg, a technology news site that's rapidly approaching Slashdot in popularity, and del.icio.us, the collaborative bookmarking network that set off the \"tagging\" movement.  And whereas Wikipedia's main appeal is that it's good enough and free, these sites suggest that voters do a significantly better job than human editors.The most dramatic example of Web 2.0 democracy is not in the selection of ideas, but their production.   I've noticed for a while that the stuff I read on individual people's sites is as good as or better than the stuff I read in newspapers and magazines.",
      "  And now I have independent evidence: the top links on Reddit are generally links to individual people's sites rather   than to magazine articles or news stories.My experience of writing for magazines suggests an explanation.  Editors.  They control the topics you can write about, and they can generally rewrite whatever you produce.  The result is to damp extremes.  Editing yields 95th percentile writing\u201495% of articles are improved by it, but 5% are dragged down.  5% of the time you get \"throngs of geeks.\"On the web, people can publish whatever they want.  Nearly all of it falls short of the editor-damped writing in print publications.",
      " But the pool of writers is very, very large.  If it's large enough, the lack of damping means the best writing online should surpass   the best in print. [3]   And now that the web has evolved mechanisms for selecting good stuff, the web wins net.  Selection beats damping, for the same reason market economies beat centrally planned ones.Even the startups are different this time around.  They are to the   startups of the Bubble what bloggers are to the print media.  During the Bubble, a startup meant a company headed by an MBA that was    blowing through several million dollars of VC money to \"get big fast\"",
      " in the most literal sense.  Now it means a smaller, younger, more technical group that just       decided to make something great.  They'll decide later if they want   to raise VC-scale funding, and if they take it, they'll take it on their terms.3. Don't Maltreat UsersI think everyone would agree that democracy and Ajax are elements of \"Web 2.0.\"  I also see a third: not to maltreat users.  During the Bubble a lot of popular sites were quite high-handed with users. And not just in obvious ways, like making them register, or subjecting them to annoying ads.",
      "  The very design of the average site in the    late 90s was an abuse.  Many of the most popular sites were loaded with obtrusive branding that made them slow to load and sent the user the message: this is our site, not yours.  (There's a physical analog in the Intel and Microsoft stickers that come on some laptops.)I think the root of the problem was that sites felt they were giving something away for free, and till recently a company giving anything away for free could be pretty high-handed about it.  Sometimes it reached the point of economic sadism: site owners assumed that the more pain they caused the user,",
      " the more benefit it must be to them.   The most dramatic remnant of this model may be at salon.com, where    you can read the beginning of a story, but to get the rest you have sit through a movie.At Y Combinator we advise all the startups we fund never to lord it over users.  Never make users register, unless you need to in order to store something for them.  If you do make users register,    never make them wait for a confirmation link in an email; in fact, don't even ask for their email address unless you need it for some reason.  Don't ask them any unnecessary questions.",
      "  Never send them email unless they explicitly ask for it.  Never frame pages you link to, or open them in new windows.  If you have a free version  and a pay version, don't make the free version too restricted.  And if you find yourself asking \"should we allow users to do x?\" just  answer \"yes\" whenever you're unsure.  Err on the side of generosity.In How to Start a Startup I advised startups never to let anyone fly under them, meaning never to let any other company offer a cheaper, easier solution.  Another way to fly low  is to give users more power.  Let users do what they want.",
      "  If you  don't and a competitor does, you're in trouble.iTunes is Web 2.0ish in this sense.  Finally you can buy individual songs instead of having to buy whole albums.  The recording industry hated the idea and resisted it as long as possible.  But it was obvious what users wanted, so Apple flew under the labels. [4] Though really it might be better to describe iTunes as Web 1.5.      Web 2.0 applied to music would probably mean individual bands giving away DRMless songs for free.The ultimate way to be nice to users is to give them something for free that competitors charge for.",
      "  During the 90s a lot of people    probably thought we'd have some working system for micropayments      by now.  In fact things have gone in the other direction.  The most    successful sites are the ones that figure out new ways to give stuff away for free.  Craigslist has largely destroyed the classified ad sites of the 90s, and OkCupid looks likely to do the same to the previous generation of dating sites.Serving web pages is very, very cheap.  If you can make even a    fraction of a cent per page view, you can make a profit.  And technology for targeting ads continues to improve.",
      "  I wouldn't be surprised if ten years from now eBay had been supplanted by an       ad-supported freeBay (or, more likely, gBay).Odd as it might sound, we tell startups that they should try to make as little money as possible.  If you can figure out a way to turn a billion dollar industry into a fifty million dollar industry, so much the better, if all fifty million go to you.  Though indeed, making things cheaper often turns out to generate more money in the end, just as automating things often turns out to generate more jobs.The ultimate target is Microsoft.  What a bang that balloon is going to make when someone pops it by offering a free web-based alternative  to MS Office.",
      " [5] Who will?  Google?  They seem to be taking their time.  I suspect the pin will be wielded by a couple of 20 year old hackers who are too naive to be intimidated by the idea.  (How hard can it be?)The Common ThreadAjax, democracy, and not dissing users.  What do they all have in   common?  I didn't realize they had anything in common till recently, which is one of the reasons I disliked the term \"Web 2.0\" so much. It seemed that it was being used as a label for whatever happened to be new\u2014that it didn't predict anything.But there is a common thread.",
      "  Web 2.0 means using the web the way it's meant to be used.  The \"trends\" we're seeing now are simply the inherent nature of the web emerging from under the broken models that got imposed on it during the Bubble.I realized this when I read an  interview with Joe Kraus, the co-founder of Excite. [6]    Excite really never got the business model right at all.  We fell    into the classic problem of how when a new medium comes out it   adopts the practices, the content, the business models of the old   medium\u2014which fails, and then the more appropriate models get   figured out.",
      "  It may have seemed as if not much was happening during the years after the Bubble burst.  But in retrospect, something was happening: the web was finding its natural angle of repose.  The democracy  component, for example\u2014that's not an innovation, in the sense of something someone made happen.  That's what the web naturally tends to produce.Ditto for the idea of delivering desktop-like applications over the web.  That idea is almost as old as the web.  But the first time     around it was co-opted by Sun, and we got Java applets.  Java has since been remade into a generic replacement for C++, but in 1996 the story about Java was that it represented a new model of software.",
      " Instead of desktop applications, you'd run Java \"applets\" delivered from a server.This plan collapsed under its own weight. Microsoft helped kill it, but it would have died anyway.  There was no uptake among hackers. When you find PR firms promoting something as the next development platform, you can be sure it's not.  If it were, you wouldn't need PR firms to tell you, because    hackers would already be writing stuff on top of it, the way sites     like Busmonster used Google Maps as a platform before Google even meant it to be one.The proof that Ajax is the next hot platform is that thousands of   hackers have spontaneously started building things on top of it.",
      "  Mikey likes it.There's another thing all three components of Web 2.0 have in common. Here's a clue.  Suppose you approached investors with the following idea for a Web 2.0 startup:    Sites like del.icio.us and flickr allow users to \"tag\" content   with descriptive tokens.  But there is also huge source of   implicit tags that they ignore: the text within web links.   Moreover, these links represent a social network connecting the      individuals and organizations who created the pages, and by using   graph theory we can compute from this network an estimate of the   reputation of each member.",
      "  We plan to mine the web for these    implicit tags, and use them together with the reputation hierarchy   they embody to enhance web searches.  How long do you think it would take them on average to realize that it was a description of Google?Google was a pioneer in all three components of Web 2.0: their core business sounds crushingly hip when described in Web 2.0 terms,  \"Don't maltreat users\" is a subset of \"Don't be evil,\" and of course Google set off the whole Ajax boom with Google Maps.Web 2.0 means using the web as it was meant to be used,",
      " and Google does.  That's their secret.    They're sailing with the wind, instead of sitting   becalmed praying for a business model, like the print media, or    trying to tack upwind by suing their customers, like Microsoft and  the record labels. [7]Google doesn't try to force things to happen their way.  They try    to figure out what's going to happen, and arrange to be standing  there when it does.  That's the way to approach technology\u2014and  as business includes an ever larger technological component, the right way to do business.The fact that Google is a \"Web 2.",
      "0\" company shows that, while meaningful, the term is also rather bogus.  It's like the word \"allopathic.\"  It just means doing things right, and it's a bad    sign when you have a special word for that. Notes[1] From the conference site, June 2004: \"While the first wave of the Web was closely   tied to the browser, the second wave extends applications across     the web and enables a new generation of services and business opportunities.\"  To the extent this means anything, it seems to be about  web-based applications.[2] Disclosure: Reddit was funded by  Y Combinator.",
      "  But although I started using it out of loyalty to the home team, I've become a genuine addict.  While we're at it, I'm also an investor in!MSFT, having sold all my shares earlier this year.[3] I'm not against editing. I spend more time editing than writing, and I have a group of picky friends who proofread almost everything I write.  What I dislike is editing done after the fact   by someone else.[4] Obvious is an understatement.  Users had been climbing in through   the window for years before Apple finally moved the door.[5] Hint: the way to create a web-based alternative to Office may not be to write every component yourself,",
      " but to establish a protocol for web-based apps to share a virtual home directory spread across multiple servers.  Or it may be to write it all yourself.[6] In Jessica Livingston's Founders at Work.[7] Microsoft didn't sue their customers directly, but they seem  to have done all they could to help SCO sue them.Thanks to Trevor Blackwell, Sarah Harlin, Jessica Livingston, Peter Norvig, Aaron Swartz, and Jeff Weiner for reading drafts of this, and to the guys at O'Reilly and Adaptive Path for answering my questions.  Want to start a startup?  Get funded by Y Combinator.",
      "     July 2004(This essay is derived from a talk at Oscon 2004.) A few months ago I finished a new  book,  and in reviews I keep noticing words like \"provocative'' and \"controversial.'' To say nothing of \"idiotic.''I didn't mean to make the book controversial.  I was trying to make it efficient.  I didn't want to waste people's time telling them things they already knew.  It's more efficient just to give them the diffs.  But I suppose that's bound to yield an alarming book.EdisonsThere's no controversy about which idea is most controversial:",
      " the suggestion that variation in wealth might not be as big a problem as we think.I didn't say in the book that variation in wealth was in itself a good thing."
    ],
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    "hardness": null
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